Cleaning apparel and interior textiles depends on the fiber, fabric construction, finish, product construction, trims, support materials, linings, buttons, and the type and extent of soil. Learning how to clean apparel and interior textiles correctly helps protect fabrics, improve results, and support smarter, more sustainable care choices. Laundering is the most common means of cleaning consumer textiles, especially for everyday garments and household fabrics. Dry cleaning, professional wet cleaning, and specialized carpet or upholstery methods are also important when water, heat, or agitation could damage the item. Knowing how each process works helps protect textiles, improve cleaning results, and support smarter, more sustainable care choices. This guide explains how to clean apparel and interior textiles properly, from washing and drying to choosing the right care methods.
How to Wash Clothes Properly
Sort Clothes Before Washing
Before cleaning, consumers should sort the items to be washed to minimize problems and remove soil as efficiently as possible. Sort by color, type of garment, type of soil, recommended care method, and propensity of fabrics to lint to reduce wear and cleaning mistakes. Closed zippers and buttons will not snag other items in the wash, so they should be secured first. Pockets should be checked for pens, tissues, and other items that may create problems during washing. Also check items for stains, holes, or tears and treat or repair as needed.
Sort so that the loads are as large as possible and the number of separate loads are as small as possible to reduce the costs of time, energy, water, and additives. This simple step also helps consumers avoid rewashing items, which saves effort and protects fabric life.
Choosing the Right Washing Machine
Most contemporary washing machines allow for easy use by providing predetermined wash cycles. Consumers can select wash and rinse water temperatures, agitation speeds, and time. But spin speed, type of agitation, number of deep rinses, and other factors are usually determined by the washing-machine producer. Instruction booklets for each machine help the consumer understand more of the science of laundering; the machine’s performance will be enhanced if these instructions are followed closely and consistently. Wash-cycle information for textiles is provided on care labels and should be followed to minimize dissatisfaction with laundry performance.
Traditional washing machines load from the top and include an agitator that occupies significant space in the tub and reduces the cleaning capacity of the machine. These vertical-axis machines use an agitator to provide the physical energy to remove soil from textiles. They agitate textiles in a pool of water with detergent and other additives. Consumers expect to see a certain amount of suds if they open the machine during operation. These machines are efficient at cleaning, but consume significant amounts of water and energy with every load. Their cleaning cycles are relatively short. They remove water during a spin cycle in which the tub rotates rapidly to pull water out of the textiles. Vertical-axis machines use a great deal of energy for heating water and a large amount of water per load.
Horizontal-axis machines, common in Asia and Europe for years, are now common in the United States as well. Sometimes these machines are referred to as front-loaders, but some horizontal-axis machines also load from the top. Horizontal-axis machines clean by rotating textile products in a manner similar to that used in dryers. The items are dropped in or tumbled through a shallow pool of water with detergent and other additives many times during the wash cycle. The impact from hitting or tumbling through the water provides the physical energy needed for cleaning.
Textile shrinkage is less with horizontal-axis machines, but abrasion can increase. Dye transfer or bleeding is more likely to occur. Wrinkling is more pronounced. If consumers hang items to dry, ironing may be needed to remove wrinkles. Savings are achieved in water, energy, and drying because extraction is more efficient in the spin cycle. Cleaning cycles are longer, but cleaning is more efficient for many load types.
Horizontal-axis machines have a larger capacity since there is no internal agitator in the tub. Consumers cannot open the machine mid-cycle as can be done with vertical-axis machines. Once the cycle has started, the last-minute item cannot be added. Most machines have several dispensers to add bleach, fabric softeners, and other compounds that are added during the wash cycle. Because these machines are horizontal, the doors must seal tightly to prevent water leakage and mid-cycle opening of the door. Because of this, these machines need to be cleaned approximately every month or a musty, mildew odor develops. Vertical-axis machines dry out between uses; horizontal-axis machines are much less likely to dry out.
Horizontal washers will also have an effect on fabric finishing. Durable finishes are designed to last through a certain number of wash and dry cycles, but the standards were established with vertical-axis machines that used greater amounts of water per cycle and a different type of agitation. These changes in washing machines may be most noticeable on fabrics with surface finishes. In addition, the lower volume of rinse water increases the likelihood of biofilms developing on textiles. A biofilm is an aggregate of microorganisms that adhere to textile surfaces and may create problems with odor and mold, mildew, or fungus growth. When heat and humidity, such as may occur during wearing, are introduced, odor may develop. Hot water, steam, and chlorine bleach are effective disinfectants. To counteract the development of biofilms, antimicrobial finishes may become more common.
Use the Right Detergent
Special cleaning compounds for horizontal-axis machines are available. Specially formulated high-efficiency detergents should be used in a horizontal-axis machine. These detergents provide the correct level of sudsing for horizontal-axis machines. Horizontal-axis machines are sensitive to sudsing. Most of these machines have suds warning devices because too many suds can damage the machine. In addition, these detergents incorporate compounds that keep soil in suspension. Remember, with these machines, less water is used, but the same or greater amounts of textiles can be cleaned in one load. Hence, chemicals that are more efficient at keeping soils in solution are needed or textiles will accumulate soil from the wash water. Finally, these detergents incorporate compounds that disperse detergent more quickly. Again, this ingredient is needed because of the lower water usage in horizontal-axis machines.
Steam washers are available for home use, but the steam is used only in selected cycles to help wet fabrics more completely. Steam is used to boost cleaning, improve detergent action, and remove oil and other challenging stains. During the rinse, steam kills microorganisms, sterilizes fabrics, and removes wrinkles that form during use or washing. Some washers heat the water to generate steam. Others use a separate heating unit to create the steam that is delivered to the tub by a nozzle. Steam washers use less energy and less water than conventional washers.
How to Dry Clothes Safely
Drying removes the solvent from the textile. The drying procedure usually is specified on the care label, and following it helps prevent shrinkage, distortion, and unnecessary wear. In machine drying, the textiles are tumbled in a rotating drum. Heated air is circulated through the drum. It heats the water remaining on the textiles from washing. This water evaporates and the moisture-laden air is vented out of the dryer.
Machine drying is considered the most severe method because of the abrasion and agitation. Fabrics tumble against the rotating cylinder and other items in the dryer. If zippers, heavy or harsh fabrics, or rough trims are present, fragile items can be damaged. Sometimes, items left in pockets, like pens, markers, and crayons, stain items with the heat from the dryer.
Other drying options use less energy, but may require more individual effort and time. Items that are hung to dry can be hung out in the weather or inside a home, apartment, or other building. In line drying, items are hung outside to dry in the weather. Wind speed, humidity levels, and sunlight intensity have a significant impact on the speed of drying. Strong winds and dust or other atmospheric pollutants can damage textiles that are hung to dry. Dew or rain can rewet dry items, requiring more time for drying. In addition, line drying in areas with bird and insect populations may result in some clean items being soiled during drying. Strong sunlight can fade items while they dry. While fading is usually not apparent immediately, it can accumulate over time.
Line drying may be too severe for some items because wet fabrics are extremely heavy and are likely to stretch or tear. This is especially a problem for wool, rayon, and other fibers that are weaker when wet. Items can also be hung to dry inside on drying racks or lines. Inside drying can increase household humidity levels, especially in humid regions or humid seasons. Finding a space where items can dry without interfering with family or household activities can be difficult. It is a challenge to find a space to dry large items like bedding. It may require more time to dry items indoors. Drying items in this manner is much less likely to result in damage compared with drying in the wind, and soiling during drying rarely occurs.
Drying flat is the least severe method because the fabric is under little stress. Special drying racks and sweater drying hammocks are available. However, drying flat requires the most time and area for drying. This method is recommended only for items that cannot be tumble dried or hung to dry. Combination dryers are available that incorporate hanging, flat, and tumble drying in separate chambers in the dryer, which gives consumers more flexibility.
Steam dryers are available. They do not actually use steam to dry. Several cycle options exist. Steam dryers use heat to dry much like a regular dryer. However, steam dryers do use steam to more effectively remove wrinkles. Steam also softens, deodorizes, and sanitizes fabrics. Some dryers add a fine mist of water that is heated to steam by the dryer. Others generate steam in a small unit and deliver the steam to the textiles. Steam dryers can be used to freshen textiles between uses. Products should be checked for stains before freshening or the process might set the stain. Fabric softener sheets should not be used with a steam dryer since they are more likely to stain.
Vent-free dryers do not exhaust moisture-saturated air outdoors. They use a closed circuit in which air inside the dryer is heated and circulated among the wet items. The hot air absorbs moisture and passes through a heat exchanger, where the water is condensed and drained off. The air is reheated and the process continues until the items are dry.
Commercial Laundry Services
Commercial laundries include several types: businesses that wash apparel and some interior textiles for individual consumers, businesses that wash uniforms for companies where uniforms are required, and businesses that operate an in-house laundry such as in the medical field. Often uniforms are leased in a full-service package, meaning that the lease includes weekly laundering.
Commercial laundering places high demands on the textiles, the equipment, and the chemicals used in cleaning. Textiles may be washed many times and are expected to withstand the heavy wear that results from washing and drying in commercial machines. The wash and dry units used in commercial laundering resemble home washers and dryers, except that they are much larger, are equipped with heavier motors and belts, and have fewer cycle options. Factors similar to those driving the home laundry and dry-cleaning industries impact commercial laundering: energy efficiency, reducing water use, and selecting chemicals with the best sustainability options.
Dry Cleaning for Delicate Fabrics
In dry cleaning, solvents other than water are used to remove soil from textiles. The solvents include perchloroethylene, petroleum solvent, silicone-based solvent, carbon dioxide-based solvent, and fluorocarbon solvent. Of these, perchloroethylene is most common today. However, because of concerns regarding the toxicity and environmental impact of perchloroethylene and fluorocarbon, new replacement solvents are available. Because of cost and regulations associated with these solvents, dry cleaners are gradually switching to other solvents or cleaning systems. If asked, most dry cleaners will identify the solvent they use.
Some items are labeled dry clean only because of the fiber content, dyes that bleed in washing, leather or fur trim, fragile components like beads or open lace, support materials that would lose their body and stiffness after wetting with water, or water-soluble finishes on the fabric or fiber. Washing by hand or machine would damage the item or destroy the look or drape of the item. Many machine-washable items may be dry-cleaned. The reverse is also true: many items labeled dry clean can be hand or machine washed with no adverse effects. Following the care label matters, but so does understanding the fabric itself, especially when finishes or trims are involved.
What Happens at the Dry Cleaner
When items are brought to the dry cleaner, they are identified with a tag that includes special instructions, the owner’s identification number, and the number of pieces in the group. Items are inspected. Because a solvent is used, stains that are water-soluble and other hard-to-remove spots are treated at the spot board before cleaning. Customers who identify stains for the dry cleaner make cleaning easier and ultimately improve their satisfaction with the cleaned product. A substantial share of the items taken to a dry-cleaning business will be cleaned in water rather than solvent. Many stains and odors, including perspiration, require wet cleaning to be removed.
After treatment at the spotting board, items are placed in a dry-cleaning unit to be tumbled with a charged solvent, meaning solvent, detergent, and a small percentage of water. After tumbling, solvent is reclaimed in the dry-to-dry unit or in a separate reclaimer unit. These units serve the same function as a dryer in laundering, except that the solvent is passed through a refrigeration unit, condensed, and filtered to be used again. Because so much solvent is lost in transfer, reclaimers are being replaced with dry-to-dry units. Use of dry-to-dry units, more efficient equipment, and better management practices have reduced perchloroethylene consumption substantially. Solvents are reclaimed to improve sustainability and lower costs. Filtering and distilling remove soil, color, odor, and other residue and allow the solvent to be reused many times.
After the items are dry, they go to the pressing area, where steam and special steam-air forms give a finished appearance to the item. For example, pants are pressed with a topper that presses the top part of the pants. Each leg is pressed separately with a press. Jackets, shirts, and blouses are finished with a suzie, a steam-body torso form. After pressing, items are placed on hangers or shirt boards and the group is reassembled to wait for pick-up by the owner. A large number of wire hangers are discarded and end up in landfills annually in the United States. Many dry cleaners will reuse hangers and shirt boards if they are clean and in good condition. Check with the dry cleaner before assuming they will reuse these items. New environmentally friendly hangers that are durable for a short period of use are made from recycled and recyclable paper.
Many dry cleaners also will replace buttons; make minor repairs to items; replace sizing, water repellency, and other finishes; add permanent creases to pants; and clean fur and leather. Some dry cleaners can also clean and sanitize feather pillows and clean and press draperies. Many dry cleaners offer a combination service for wedding dresses that includes cleaning the gown, preparing it for storage, and providing a special box for storage. Although this service is appealing, it may not completely protect the gown from aging, and the dry cleaner may not use archival materials in the box or packing materials. Some specialty gowns with lots of bead and sequin trim may require a special expensive and time-consuming cleaning process.
Leather and Fur Cleaning
Products made of leather and fur, and those that contain these materials, should be cleaned by specialists because of their complex and special requirements. Leather and fur dry cleaning must remove soil without damaging the dye or finish and restore oils that cleaning removes. This is a complex and expensive process. Wide variations in hides or skins and processing create potential problems for the consumer and dry cleaner. Frequently, the leather or fur cleaner is required to redye or refinish the item to restore it to a form that will satisfy the customer. Because of this additional processing, leather and fur cleaning is expensive. Most dry cleaners do not clean these items themselves but send them to a specialist.
Dry cleaners frequently see problems with leather dyes that are not fast to dry cleaning. This is especially common with high-fashion items and items that combine leather trim with woven or knit fabrics. The problem is more common with apparel because apparel items are more likely to have leather trim. However, when clean apparel and interior textiles that are made of leather or trimmed in leather, similar dye-related problems in cleaning may also present.
Home Dry Cleaning Kits
A product for freshening dry-clean-only items is available in a kit that includes a stain-removal solution, a bag for use in a home dryer, and a solvent-treated moist cloth that can be used to gently pretreat stains. Consumers should pretreat stains and test items for colorfastness before cleaning them. The moistened cloth is placed in the bag with the garments. The bag is then placed in an otherwise empty dryer with an outside vent. Heat from the dryer activates the solvent, which removes light soil and some odor. Items should be removed promptly and hung to minimize wrinkling.
The product works best with lightly soiled items and items that do not require special care or pressing, such as simple slacks, skirts, and wool sweaters. The kit is not as effective as commercial dry cleaning, but it reduces the number of times many products will need dry cleaning, which can save both money and fabric wear.
Professional Wet Cleaning
Professional wet cleaning is a commercial alternative to dry cleaning for items labeled dry clean only. This process is more complex than home laundering and requires training in selecting and using the proper technique. Almost every type of dry-cleanable fabric can be wet-cleaned, provided there is careful control of temperature, mechanical action, moisture levels, soap, and other cleaning additives. Before cleaning, products are sorted by fabric type, not color; they are checked for the presence of water-soluble dyes; and stains are treated. The process is labor-intensive and uses controlled applications of heat, steam, and natural soaps to clean textiles and pressing techniques to restore the item’s appearance. Even though water is used, these computer-controlled wet-cleaning and drying machines differ from home washing machines and dryers. The item may not be fully immersed in water during the process. The cleaner selects from steam cleaning, spot removing, hand washing, gentle machine washing, tumble drying, and vacuuming. Microwave drying reduces shrinkage during drying. The method selected depends on the item and fabric type, degree of soiling, and condition. Research has found that many items labeled dry clean only can be wet-cleaned successfully.
Consumers report that wet cleaning provides similar cleaning potential as dry cleaning and appreciate the lack of solvent odor on wet-cleaned items. Consumers are pleased with the general cleanliness and overall appearance; however, some shrinkage, wrinkling, and color loss may occur. Because the process uses less-expensive equipment, less capital is needed to open a plant. Wet cleaning makes significant use of water and energy during the cleaning process, but there are fewer risks in terms of flammability, health problems, and environmental contamination that are associated with traditional dry-cleaning solvents. Discharge from wet cleaners has not created problems in water-treatment facilities.
Carpet and Upholstery Cleaning Tips
This section discusses cleaning carpets and upholstery. The challenge of cleaning carpet and upholstery is that almost always the textile is cleaned in situ, or on-site. Selection of cleaning compounds is based on the type of residue that is left since rinsing cannot occur. Selection of the cleaning method is based on the degree of soil, fabric structure, and convenience. Most of these methods clean only the surface and are considered light or surface-cleaning methods because they do not clean to the base of the pile or fabric structure. As with other textiles, it may not be possible to completely clean interior textiles that have become heavily soiled. While the myth is not true, many consumers continue to postpone cleaning for fear that cleaning will make the carpet or upholstery soil more quickly.
Several of the methods discussed in this section are used for upholstery. Upholstery cleaning codes can be combined with the methods to produce optimum results, especially when the fabric is sensitive to water or agitation.
Vacuuming
Vacuuming uses suction to pull particulate soil, such as dust, lint, and dirt, from carpeting, upholstered furniture, and wall and window coverings. It is the most common and important method of cleaning carpets. Vacuuming removes soil that has not adhered to the fibers. Large particles such as small rocks and paper clips may not be removed by vacuuming and may need to be swept or picked up by hand. Since vacuuming removes only particulate soil, other types of soil must be removed by other means. For industrial and commercial carpets, the vacuum cleaner must have a heavy-duty rating so that it cleans deeply into the surface pile and can withstand frequent, heavy use. Most home vacuum cleaners are not of this type.
Regular vacuuming is recommended so that soil does not work deep into the pile of the carpet. In many applications, this means daily vacuuming. For vacuuming to be most effective, the vacuum should pass over the carpet in several directions so that soil protected by yarns or fibers in one direction is exposed and removed when the vacuum approaches from another direction.
Upholstery, especially pile upholstery, should be vacuumed in a similar manner to carpet—in multiple directions. Pockets or crevices and areas under cushions or pillows should be vacuumed. Many vacuum cleaners include crevice tools to assist in removing dust and particulate matter from these areas of upholstered furniture.
On any carpet, spots and stains should be treated as soon as possible after soiling. Carpet manufacturers provide a list of recommended cleaning compounds for specific stains. If carpets accumulate oily soils or airborne dust and dirt that is not removed with regular vacuuming, corrective action should be taken. A variety of procedures are discussed in this chapter. However, before attempting any of these other methods, a thorough vacuuming should be done first to remove surface soil and separate and loosen packed pile.
Hot-Water Extraction
In the hot-water extraction method, a fine spray of hot-water–detergent solution is injected into the carpet. To be most effective, the water should be very hot. The solution is under pressure and wets the carpet quickly but is removed almost immediately by a powerful vacuum. Vacuuming removes both the water and the soil.
Several types of equipment exist. All are based on two options: a portable unit or a truck-mounted system. A machine sprays the cleaning solution into the carpet, a powerful vacuum removes the soiled solution, and a holding tank contains the soiled water. Truck-mounted systems are more effective at cleaning and reduce the potential for indoor air that contains excess humidity and tiny dirt particles. If a truck-mounted system is used, the truck runs in neutral to power the system so it must be parked to avoid exhaust fumes from entering the building. All-electric systems are available without the exhaust problems. Because of the hot water used in this process, scalding injuries may occur if a hose breaks or detaches.
Overwetting of the carpet sometimes occurs if an area is treated too slowly. To minimize rapid resoiling, the detergent must be completely removed. Since no brushes are used in this process, pile distortion is minimized. This process is sometimes referred to as warm-water extraction. Although sometimes also referred to as steam cleaning, no steam is used in the process. This method is recommended by almost all carpet manufacturers because it provides deep cleaning to the base of the pile or fabric structure with minimal pile distortion or damage.
Advantages of hot-water extraction are that the high cleaning temperatures kill bacteria, dust mites, mold, fungus, and other organisms. If properly done, there is little or no residue. The high pressure and powerful vacuum clean more effectively than other methods, which is why this process is so widely used.
Carpet Shampooing
Wet cleaning, or shampooing, of carpets is a method that uses water-based detergents in foam form and requires extended drying times. The cleaning solution generates high levels of foam to reduce wetting of the carpet yarns and eliminate wetting of the carpet backing and padding. The foam is worked into the pile with rotating brushes. A lubricating agent is incorporated in the cleaning solution to reduce damage to the carpet yarns and fibers from the rotating brushes. A thorough wet vacuuming follows to remove the soil-laden solution. Some carpets may require several days before they are completely dry. The solution also often includes an optical brightener to enhance the clean appearance of the carpet. Ingredients are selected so that the residue dries without being sticky, which would attract soil and lint.
Two types of machines are used: a cylindrical foam machine and a rotary shampoo machine. The cylindrical foam machine includes an air compressor that creates the foam before it is applied to the carpet. A revolving cylindrical brush applies the foam to the carpet and provides the agitation. This method is not as effective at removing particulate soil, so it is essential to thoroughly vacuum carpet before and after wet cleaning.
The rotary shampoo machine is the same kind of machine as used for cleaning and polishing hard floor surfaces. This machine sprays the cleaning solution onto the carpet. The rotary brush whips the solution into a foam and agitates the carpet surface. Many carpet manufacturers do not recommend this type of cleaning because of the potential for damage to the carpet, especially cut-pile carpets that are common in residential areas. Overwetting is more common with this machine, with potential staining from carpet backing or padding, shrinkage, and odor.
Testing the cleaning solution on an inconspicuous area of the carpet is recommended before the entire surface is cleaned in this manner. This process is also known as the rotary brush method. Cleaning solutions may not be completely removed, resulting in brown stains appearing on the surface of the pile. Brush action may permanently distort the pile. Detergents should be selected that prevent dulling of the carpet’s surface, minimize rapid resoiling, avoid creating problems with static electricity, and disinfect. After wet cleaning, problems with static electricity may develop if a water-based antistatic agent was originally applied to the carpet and not restored after wet cleaning. If compounds containing chlorine, such as bleach, are added to the shampoo, a yellow discoloration may appear on the carpet. Unfortunately, this problem also occurs in communities where chlorine is used to treat the water. Wet cleaning is not as effective at cleaning as several other methods.
A variation of this method is carbonated cleaning, or the bonnet method, that uses carbonated water to improve the cleaning efficiency of the process. The bonnet machine is a modification of the hard floor spray-buffing machine.
Fast Carpet Cleaning Methods
Dry-foam cleaning, or aerosol cleaning of carpet, is done by hand with a foam sprayed onto the carpet or by employing a machine that deposits a detergent solution as a foam on the carpet just ahead of an agitating brush. The brush works the solution into the carpet, loosens soil particles, and suspends them in the foam, and the vacuum removes the soil. Since application of the foam, agitation, and vacuuming is almost simultaneous, complete wetting of the carpet is avoided. Dry-foam cleaning does not remove deeply embedded soil because the solution works more on the surface. Dry-foam processes allow the carpet to be used soon after cleaning, often within the hour. This process is also used to clean upholstery.
Absorbent powder cleaning, also known as powder cleaning, uses absorbent powders combining detergents, water, and solvents. The dry powder is sprinkled on the surface of the carpet or upholstery and brushed or otherwise worked into the pile or fabric. The powder combines with the soil and holds it in suspension until it is removed by vacuuming. The powder should remain in contact with the fabric’s surface for a brief time before being removed by vacuuming. The method is fast and requires no time for drying, but removes surface soil only. Pile distortion is related to the vigor with which the powder is worked into the pile. With cleaning compounds that have extremely fine particles, it may be difficult to remove all of the compound. If white powder appears on shoes or pant cuffs, too much was used or removal was not complete. This method is also known as dry-extraction cleaning, or absorbent compound cleaning. It is also used to clean upholstery.
Ultrasonic Carpet Cleaning
Ultrasonic cleaning requires that the rug or carpet be removed from the use site and taken to a special cleaning facility. High-frequency sound waves attract the soil and remove it from the carpet fibers. At present, this method is not used on carpets that cannot be removed from the location. Ultrasonic cleaning in conjunction with water-based and solvent-and-water-based systems is being investigated as an alternative to solvent dry cleaning, but it remains a specialized option.
Conclusion
To clean apparel and interior textiles properly, the method must match the fabric, the soil, and the item’s construction. Sorting, care labels, the right detergent, and the right washer or dryer all matter, as do dry-cleaning choices for delicate garments and special handling for leather, fur, carpets, and upholstery. Regular vacuuming, prompt spot treatment, and careful drying can extend textile life and improve appearance. In every setting, the best results come from using the least aggressive method that still cleans effectively, which is the key to preserving textiles longer.
References
[1] Nayak, R., & Ratnapandian, S. (2018). Care and Maintenance of Textile Products Including Apparel and Protective Clothing. CRC Press.
[2] Kadolph, S. J. (2016). Textiles (12th ed.). Pearson Education.
[3] Tortora, P. G., & Merkel, R. S. (2014). Fairchild’s Dictionary of Textiles (8th ed.). Fairchild Books.
[4] Collier, B. J., & Tortora, P. G. (2009). Understanding Textiles (7th ed.). Pearson.
[5] Moss, A. J. E. (1967). Clothes Care: A Manual on the Care of Fabrics (2nd ed.). Heywood Books.
Founder & Editor of Textile Learner. He is a Textile Consultant, Blogger & Entrepreneur. Mr. Kiron is working as a textile consultant in several local and international companies. He is also a contributor of Wikipedia.
