Comparative Study of Cover Factor of Various Constructed Fabric

Comparative Study of Cover Factor of Various Constructed Fabric

Mofizur Rahaman Akash
Fabric Marketing,
Unifill Composit Dyeing Mills Ltd.
Email: akashcox@yahoo.com

Abstract:
This thesis explains a comprehensive investigation into the cover factor of various constructed fabrics. Cover factor is a critical parameter in textile engineering, influences fabric properties such as opacity, thermal insulation, and aesthetic appeal. By experimentation and analysis, this study compares the cover factor of different constructed fabrics, including woven, knitted, and nonwoven varieties. Methodologies include image analysis, mechanical testing, and computational modeling to quantify and understand the cover factor variations. The findings contribute to the understanding of fabric structure-property relationships and offer insights for optimizing fabric design and production processes across diverse applications.

Keywords: Cover factor, Fabric construction, Weave plan.

CHAPTER 1

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Introduction and Research Background
The weaving is a process of formation of fabric with interlacement of two or more sets of yarns using a stable machine called loom. It is still not certain when the weaving process was introduced to human society. Except few activities elsewhere, the major developments in textile took place in England. In England the major shift from agriculture to woolen industry came in the 14th century. During all these years and a few hundred years after 14th century, the cloth was produced on hand-looms which were not equipped with fly shuttle.

In 1733, John Kay invented the fly shuttle which enabled weft to be inserted more rapidly. Edmund Cart Wright, an English clergy man, invented a so called power loom which could be operated from a single point by two strong man. Fortunately steam power was available by 1765. Soon power looms were driven by steam and most of the wooden parts were replaced with iron. These looms then were stopped every few minutes in order to replace the empty weft pirns or cop in the shuttle and this limited the number of looms, a weaver could operate to about four. James Northrop, an English man invented an automatic weft transfer system which replaced the weft pirn in the shuttle without slowing or stopping the loom in 1889.

Similar developments took place elsewhere also, Ruti, a major loom maker of Switzerland manufactured automatic bobbin changing Northrop loom in 1898. After World War II, more productivity and efficiency were essential to overcome increasing labour costs in Western countries. Limitations of Shuttle Looms, relative terms should be considered and efficiencies in loom with conventional picking, productivity of these machines will continue to be limited as long as their fundamental constructions involved the use of shuttle propulsion. It is known that the power required for picking is proportional to the cube of the loom speed. If the loom speed is increased from 200 to 300 picks per minute, the power requirement would increase by a factor of (3/2) 3 i.e. 3.4 times approximately.

The emphasis on productivity and quality has developed the weaving technology very much and as a result the working hours required to weave fabric from loom have been reduced from about 20 to 0.25 during the last 125 years, and in the last 50 years there has been a reduction of 95% in operative hours per standard unit produced.

But this is not at all. To achieve the high production we must control every point of production. Weaving is the heart of textile. There are many types of fabric, such as woven, knitted, nonwoven etc. But woven fabric is used most of the people all over the world.

1.2 Aim and Objectives
The aim of this research is to make a practical investigation into different types of woven fabrics industrially produced in Bangladesh and make a comparison among them based on different characteristics. The main objectives of this thesis based on the above consideration are:

• To analyze the construction and design of some important woven fabrics,
• To determine the weaving, drafting and lifting plan of some selected fabrics.
• To check the thread density, thread count, GSM, cover factor and weave design to study the consequences of different fabric parameters on different fabric properties.
• To find out the Cover factor of various constructed fabrics.

CHAPTER 2

2.0 Literature Review
The word “textile” was originally used to define a woven fabric and the processes involved in weaving. Textile refers to any material made of interlacing fibres or Yarns.  Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibres of wool, flax, cotton, or other material to produce long strands. Textiles are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting, or pressing fibres together (felt). The broad definition of textiles will generally cover all of the products produced by the textile industry intended for intermediate structures or final products. Textile is a type of material composed of natural or synthetic fibres. Types of textiles include animal-based material such as wool or silk, plant-based material such as linen and cotton, and synthetic material such as polyester and rayon. Textiles are often associated with the production of clothing. The production of textiles is a craft whose speed and scale of production has been altered almost beyond recognition by industrialization and the introduction of modern manufacturing techniques. However, for the main types of textiles, plain weave, twill, or satin weave. The development of man-made fibers and new dyestuffs in the early part of the 20th century, and continuing technological development, have and continue to lead to new products and applications. Man-made fibers opened up completely new application areas for technical textiles. Synthetic fibers offered high strength, elasticity, uniformity, chemical resistance, flame resistance and abrasion resistance among other things. Applications of new chemicals help the design engineers to tailor their products for special uses. New fabrication techniques also contributed to the improved performance and service life of technical textiles the technological advances of textiles affect in various industries. The application of textile material in technical textiles has given an impetus to fiber technology. Technical textiles have met the various challenges created by the advancement of the society and by the ever needs of mankind which had been supposed to be increased now, at the beginning of the 21stcentury.Knowledge of a basic textile skill of manipulating fibers, fabrics and finishing techniques is must for an understanding of how all those interact and perform in different combinations and environments. Beyond that, much of the technology and expertise associated with the industry resides in an understanding of the needs and dynamics of many very different endues and market sectors. Technical textiles materials and products manufactured primarily for their technical and performance properties rather than their aesthetic or decorative characteristics. Technical textiles have been entering every aspect of human life. Some of the modern industries simply would not be the same without it as they make a vital contribution to the performance and success of products that are used in non-textile industries. The technological advances of textiles affect much more in various industries. Thanks to advanced medical technology, today minute bundles of fibers are implanted in human bodies to replace or reinforce parts of the human body. On the other hand, it is used as protective clothing, medical and health care products, automotive components, building material, geotextiles, agriculture, sport and leisurewear, filter media, environmental protection, etc.

2.1 A Brief Introduction to Textiles

Definition of Textile:
The term ‘Textile’ means originally a woven fabric, but textile & the plural textiles are now also applied to fiber, filament & yarn. Natural & manufactured & most products for which these are a particular raw material.

This definition embraces, for example fiber- based products in the following categories: threads, cords, ropes & braids; woven, knitted &non woven fabrics, lace, nets & embroidery; hosiery knitwear & made up apparels; household textiles, soft furnishing & upholstery; carpets & other floor coverings; technical, industrial & engineering textiles include geo textiles & medical textiles.

Fiber:
It is defined as one of the delicate, hair portions of the tissues of a plant or animal or other substances that are very small in diameter in relation to their length. A fiber is a material which is several hundred times as long as it’s thick.

Textile Fibre:
Textile fiber has some characteristics which differ between fiber to Textile fiber. Textile fiber can be spun into a yarn or made into a fabric by various methods including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, and twisting. The essential requirements for fibers to be spun into yarn include a length of at least 5 millimeters, flexibility, cohesiveness, and sufficient strength. Other important properties include elasticity, fineness, uniformity, durability, and luster.

Yarn:
A product of substantial length & relatively small cross-section consisting of fiber(s) and/or filament(s) with or without twist.

A continuous strand of textile fibers created when a cluster of individual fibers are twisted together. These long yarns are used to create fabrics, either by knitting, plaiting, or weaving.

Spinning:
This final operation in the production of a natural yarn, consists of the drawing, twisting, and the winding of the newly spun yarn onto a device such as a bobbin, spindle, cop, tube, cheese, etc. In manufactured fibers, the spinning process is the extrusion of a spinning solution into a coagulation bath, a heated air chamber, or a cooling area in order to form a continuous filament or tow.

Definition of fabric:
The term fabric is derived from the Latin term fabrica meaning fabric or workshop. It means that which is put together like fabric or building. In fabric engineering, fabric is defined as a flat material with length (L), Breadth (B), Thickness (G) and having weight. While volumetric density of fabric can be determined from these parameters, it is customary to evaluate the aerial density of fabric (W or W′) in terms of oz/sq, yd. or GSM.

2.2 Classification of Fabrics:
Fabrics may be classified in different ways,

Utility:
(i) Apparel, (ii) Household (iii) Industrial, which is modified as:

(i) Apparel:
(a) Outer wear, (b) Inner wear, (c) Seasonal wear, (d) Staple wear, (e) Fancy wear.

(ii) Household:
(a) Bedding, (b) Home textiles.

(iii) Technical textiles:
(a) Mobile textiles, (b) Geo textiles, (c) Construction textiles, (d) Industrial textiles, (e) Medical textiles, (f) Safety textiles, (g) Smart or Intelligent textiles, (h) High-altitude textiles, (i) Mountaineering textiles, (j) Outer space textiles, (k) Military textiles, (l) Agriculture textiles, (m) Horticulture textiles, (n) Sericulture textiles, (o) Dairy textiles., (p) Fishery textiles, etc.

2.3 Method of manufacture as:

Woven:
(a) Hand loom, (b) Power loom, (c) Khadi.

Knitted:
(a) Hand knitted, (b) Machine knitted, (c) Wrap knits, (d) Weft knits.

Embroidery:
(a) Hand embroidery, (b) Machine embroidery.

Lace:
(a) Hand- made, (b) Machine- made.

Braiding:
(a) Personal wear, (b) Industrial, (c) Oceanic.

2.4 Materials used as:
(i) Natural, (ii) Man-made, (iii) Blends.

2.5 Yarns used as:
(i) Filament (mono/multi), (ii) Spun (single/folded/cable/fancy).

2.6 Fabric condition as:
(i) Grey/Greige / Loomstate, (ii) Finished: a) Scoured, b) Bleached, c) Dyed, d) Printed, e) Mercerized, f) Stentered, g) Calendered, h) Sanforized/Zero-Zero finished, i) Sized, j) Glazed, k) Etched/Embossed, l) Felted, m) Raised, n) Sheared, o) Gassed/Singed, p) Fire-proofed, q) Schreinered, r) Soil-resistant, s) Soil-release, t) Stain-resistant, u) Anti-crease, etc.

2.7 Trade or Brand names such as:
(i) Poplin, (ii) Shirting, (iii) Cambric, (iv) Lawn, (v) Voile, (vi) Crepe, (vii) Jean, (viii) Denim, (ix) Gabardine, (x) Sheeting, (xi) Long cloth, (xii) Twill, (xiii) Drill, (xiv) Tussore, (xv) Mull, (xvi) Muslin, (xvii) Damask, (xviii) Brocade, (xix) Georgette, (xx) Satin, (xxi) Plain, (xxii) Flannel, (xxiii) Blanket, (xxiv) Rug, (xxv) Broadcloth, (xxvi) Duck, (xxvii) Canvas, (xxviii) Velvet, (xxix) Corduroy, (xxx) Toweling (xxxi) Turkish Toweling, etc.

2.8 From Technologists viewpoint as:
(i) Structure (a) Weave/Nature of interlacement, (b) Knitting/Nature of interloping, etc. (ii) Texture/Nature of construction.

2.9 From Engineers viewpoint as:
(i) Breadth or width, (ii) Length, (iii) Yarn size, (iv) Setting: (a) Warp, (b) Weft, (v) Weight, (vi) Fabric Thickness, (vii) Fabric face, (viii) Fabric cover.

2.10 From Standards viewpoint as:
(i) Construction, (ii) Weight, (iii) Strength, (iv) Condition, (v) Application or End use.

2.11 From Consumers viewpoints, fabrics are classified earlier as:
i) Apparel, ii) Household, iii) Industrial.

2.12 This classification is subsequently modified as:

i) Apparel

ii)  a) Bedding b) Home textiles

iii)  Technical textiles, which include:

1. Mobile textiles
2. Geo textiles
3. Construction textiles
4. Industrial textiles
5. Medical textiles
6. Safety textiles
7. Smart or Intelligent textiles, etc.

2.13 Finished Fabric:
A fabric that has gone through all the necessary finishing processes, and is ready to be used in the manufacturing of garments. These processes include bleaching, dyeing, printing, heat setting, etc

Weaving: The action of producing fabric by Interlacing of warp & weft threads.

Weaving is a method of fabric production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at right angles to form a fabric or cloth. The other methods are knitting, lace making, felting, and braiding or plaiting. The longitudinal threads are called the warp and the lateral threads are the weft or filling. (Weft or woof is an old English word meaning “that which is woven”. The method in which these threads are inter woven affects the characteristics of the cloth.

Cloth is usually woven on a loom, a device that holds the warp threads in place while filling threads are woven through them. A fabric band which meets this definition of cloth (warp threads with a weft thread winding between) can also be made using other methods, including tablet weaving, back-strap, or other techniques without looms.[3]

The way the warp and filling threads interlace with each other is called the weave. The majority of woven products are created with one of three basic weaves: plain weave, satin weave, or twill. Woven cloth can be plain (in one colour or a simple pattern), or can be woven in decorative or artistic designs.

2.14 Woven Fabric:
Fabrics composed of two sets of yarns. One set of yarns, thewarp, runs along the length of the fabric. The other set of yarns, the fill orweft, is perpendicular to the warp. Woven fabrics are held together byweaving the warp and the fill yarns over and under each other.

2.15 Knitted Fabric:
The fabrics which are produced by interloping, intra-looping or intermeshing of a single yarn and produced loop by help of needle.

2.16 Non-woven:
The process of producing of fabrics bychemical bonding of fibers. A textile structure held together by interlocking offibers in a random web, accomplished by mechanical, chemical, thermalor solvent means. Generally, crimped fibers that range in length from 0.75 to4.5 inches are used.

2.17 Structure:
Structure is the interlacement of warp & weft yarn or interloping of loops.

2.18 Classification of woven fabric structure:

1. Simple structure.
2. Compound structure.

a) Simple structure:
The ends & picks are interlaced with one another at right angle. Only one series of ends & one series of picks are used. All the constituent threads are easily responsible for the over all appearance & performance of the fabric.

b) Compound structure:
More than one series of ends & picks are used in this structure. Some of the threads may be responsible for the body of the fabric, such as ground yarn, whilst some may be entirely used for ornamental purpose such as figuring. In this cloth some threads may be found not to parallel formation to another, there are may pile surface construction in which some threads may projected out at right angle to the general plane of the fabric. For example pile fabric, towel etc.

2.19 Methods of Fabric representation:
The woven fabric is formed by interlacement of warp and weft yarn. There are two ways of interlacement.

a) Warp over weft interlacing:
This is warp over weft is represented in a fabric design. Here the warp threads is raised.

b) Weft over warp interlacing:
This is weft over warp represented in a fabric design. Here war yarn is Lowered.

2.20 Basic Parts of a complete woven Design:
Basic Parts of a complete woven design are:

1. Weave Plan
2. Drafting Plan
3. Lifting Plan
4. Denting Plan

a. Weave Plan:
Weave plane illustrates the interlacing of ends & picks in the fabric under consideration. It shows the up & down of each yarn in a fabric sample. Weave plan is drawn on a graph paper.

This is a representation of design of a plain weave:

1. The vertical line (column) represents warp yarn.
2. The horizontal line (row) represents weft yarn.
3. Represents repeat unit.
4. ‘X’ represents warp over weft.
5. Empty box represents weft over warp.
6. # represents starting point.

b. Drafting Plan:
Drafting plan indicates the number of  heald shafts required to make a design and also indicates  the threading of warp through heald eyes of  heald shafts it is drawn top of the weave plan.

c. Lifting Plan:
Lifting plan indicates the selection of heald shafts to be lifted or lowered on each successive insertion of weft or pick. Lifting plan is drawn at the right side of the weave plan.

d. Denting Plan:
The process of inserting warp yarn through red is called denting and the plan that indicate the order in which denting is done is called denting plan. This is done for keeping uniform spacing between yarns of warp sheets. Usually two yarns are passed through each dent.

2.21 Different systems of drafting

a. Straight Draft:

• It is the simplest form of draft system where individual warp yarn in a repeat is place in individual heald frame.
• Number of heald frame required is equal to the number of warp yarn in the repeat.
• Mostly used in twill design

b. Skip Draft:

• This draft is use when EPI is high.
• This draft reduces the friction between the yarns.
• Number of heald frames used is two times the number of warp yarn in a repeat.

c. Pointed Draft:

• This draft is used to make fabric with symmetry design e.g. zig zag, twill, diamond.
• This draft is used when the repeat size is too large.
• In this draft system a straight draft is returned in the opposite direction after a certain point.
• The number of heald frames used is equal to half the number of warp yarn in a repeat.

2.22 Above three is the most common drafting system. Other drafting systems are as follows-

1. Broken draft
2. Divided draft
3. Grouped draft
4. Combined draft
5. Curved draft
6. Sateen draft
7. Bed fort cord draft

2.23 System or classification of drafting:
Drafting are of following types:-

1. Straight draft
2. Skip draft
3. Broken draft
4. Group draft
5. Combined draft
6. Pointed draft /V- draft
7. Curved draft
8. Divided draft
9. Sateen draft
10. Bed fort cord draft

a. Straight draft:
This draft is the simplest types of draft and from the basis of many others drafts. There each successive thread is drown on each successive shafts. The first thread is drown through the first heald shaft and the second through the second heald shafts and so on. So the no. of heald shafts equals the no. of warp threads  in a repeat. Straight drafts are two types:

1. S-entering
2. Z- entering

b. Skip draft:
This draft is used in weaving the fabrics with  a high density of warp threads. Here the number of  heald shafts used is  two or more times greater than the maximum number of heald shafts required this draft is used in plane weave fabrics.

The advantages of using this drafting system are:

1. Less friction
2. Less crowding threads
3. Less end breakage

c. Pointed draft /V- draft:
Point drafts are used for the weaves which are symmetrical about the center. This draft is produce in case of waved or diamond effects on fabric. In  this system a straight draft is returned in the opposite direction. Here the first and last heald shafts of design contain only one end where as the middle shafts contain warps.

Here, the number of heald shafts is always one more then the haft of the number of warp in warp.

d. Broken draft:
This drafts may be considered as  modified pointed draft. It is also a combination straight drafts of  different direction of construction. In broken draft a break in continuation occurs where the warp thread revers its direction. This  direction is reversed not on the last on first shaft as in pointed draft. The broken draft is  applied for producing herring bone, twill, dia per designs etc.

e. Divided draft:
In this draft the heald shafts are divided into two or more groups. For every groups suitable draft is selected in pile weave two or more sets of warp thread are used. So they require this type of draft. For example: The ground of warp thread of warp pile fabric are passed through the front heald shafts and pile warp thread are passed through the back heald shafts.

f. Grouped draft:
This type of draft is used for producing cheek and stripe fabric ,in which strips have different weaves or there combination .

Here in example the first 4 threads of warp are responsible for one type of  strip and the next thread are for another  strip.

g. Curved draft:
This draft is applied fancy weave having large warp repeat with a view to reduced the number of heald shafts .There are irregular and actually can not be classified .

In word it may be regarded as a type of pointed draft. But where number fixed pick point will occur.

2.24 Difference between broken draft and divided draft:

2.25 Difference between straight draft and skip draft:

2.26 Difference between divided draft and group draft:

2.27 Basic structure of woven fabric:
Woven Fabric has three basic structures

1. Plain Weave
2. Twill Weave
3. Sateen / Satin Weave

a. Plain Weave:
Plain weave is the easiest and simplest of all weaves plain weave is obtained by using all even numbered warp threads at are pick and raising all odd numbered threads at the next pick. The repeat contains 2 inch and 2 picks, that is repeat size is 2 x 2. Here the first group goes over the first weft and under the 2nd weft. The 2nd warp goes under the first weft and over the 2nd weft. For producing plain weave at least 2 heald shafts are required.

2.28 Features of plain weave

• The weave is the simplest form of weave.
• It has the smallest repeat 2×2.
• Number of interlacement is large and so structure is stable.
• Minimum 2 heald frames are required to form the weave.
• The plain weave threads are interlaced in alternate order.
• Made from all kinds of textile raw materials.
• Production rate of plain weave is higher than other weaves.
• Most of the fabrics are produced by plain weave.

2.29 Trade names:

• Calico
• Muslin
• Long cloth
• Taffeta
• Tabby
• Linen
• Alpaca

2.30 Classification of Plain Weave
According to cover factor or compactness of fabric there are three types of plain weave:

1. Approximately square cloth
2. Warp faced cloth
3. Weft facet cloth

a. Approximately square cloth

• EPI and PPI are the same.
• Warp and weft count are the same.
• Cover factor ranges from below 10 to above 13

b. Warp faced cloth

• Warp cover factor is greater than weft cover factor.
• Warp predominates in both sides of the cloth.
• EPI is more than PPI

c. Weft faced cloth
The plain weave are classified into three types

• Warp face: when the EPI is more than PPI it is called warp face. Or when warp yarn count is more than weft yarn count then the plain weave is called warp face plain weave.
• Weft face: when the PPI is more than EPI it is called weft face. Or when warp yarn count is less than weft yarn count then the plain weave is called weft face plain weave.
• Balanced: when the EPI is equal to PPI it is called balanced plain weave. Or when warp yarn count is equal to weft yarn count then the plain weave is called balanced plain weave.
• Unbalanced cloth: In unbalanced cloth following three matters may happen

• • Same EPI and PPI but different warp and weft yarn count.
  • Same warp and weft cloth and EPI & PPI are different.

2.31 Ornamentation of plain cloth: Ornamentation of plain cloth may be done by the following ways:

• By using extremely fine yarn.
• By using extremely course yarn.
• By using threads of different colors combined in check form.
• By using fancy slub yarn.
• By using different order of denting.
• By using two warp beams which are in different tension to produced sear seaker stipe.
• By using yarn of different twist.
• By using different raw materials for producing warp & weft yarn.

2.32 Derivatives of plain weave

1. Rib
2. Matt

a. Rib Weave:
The rib weave are of two types

Warp Rib

• Regular warp rib
• Irregular warp rib

Weft Rib

• Regular warp rib
• Irregular warp rib

b. Matt

• Regular matt
• Irregular matt

2.33 Rib Weave
Rib structure are those whose surface consist of warp way & weft way raised lines. Here course line is formed because a number of yarns are used as a single yarn. According to the direction of rib or course line of threads there are two types of rib weaves namely:

• Warp rib
• Weft rib

2.34 Weft rib:
It is a plain weave two or more picks inserted as a single pick in a single shade the cloth produced is called warp rib cloth. We can also obtain this rib effect by using course yarn as weft and finer yarn as warp. The rib effect is produced in weft way direction. The features of warp rib fabrics are mentioned below:

2.35 Features:

• Rib or cord effect is produced in the weft way direction that is in the direction of fabric width.
• Finer yarn is used warp yarn and courser yarn is used as weft yarn.
• Here EPI is more than PPI.
• Low twisted yarn is used as weft yarn.
• In both sides of fabrics warp floating are seen.
• In warp rib clothes warp cover factor is higher than weft cover factor.
• Warp rib structure gives a higher weight and more flexible cloth more heald shaft to reduce warp density by slip draft.

2.36 Classification of warp rib:
There are two types of warp rib-

1. Regular warp rib
2. Irregular warp rib

a. Regular warp rib: If in successive ribs same no. of weft threads are inserted regular warp rib effect is produced. Thus creates a regular appearance on fabric. The count of weft yarn and no. of weft yarn to be inserted per shed depends on the desired rib width.

Regular warp rib structure is denoted by “A/A ” warping where “A” is the weft yarns per shed. For example: “2/2  warp rib”, “4/4  warp rib”, etc.

b. Irregular warp rib: If in successive ribs same no. of weft threads are inserted regular warp rib effect is produced. Thus creates a regular appearance on fabric. Irregular warp rib can be denoted by “A/B ” warp rib where A&B indicate no. of picks/wefts individually inserted. For example “3/2 ” warp rib “4/1 ” etc.

Weft rib: If in a plain weave two or more warps works as a single warp and takes parts in interlacement with weft yarns, the cloth produced is called weft rib cloth.

The features of weft rib cloths are mention below:

• Rib or cord effect is produced in the warp may direction that is in the direction of fabric length.
• Finer yarn is used as weft yarn and courser yarn is used as warp yarn.
• Here PPI is more than EPI.
• Low twisted yarn is used as warp yarn.
• In both sides of fabrics waft floating are seen.
• In weft rib cloths weft cover factor is lower than warp cover factor.
• Weft rib structure yarns a higher weight and more flexible cloth than plain weave.

2.37 Classification of weft rib:
There are two types of weft rib

1. Regular weft rib
2. Irregular weft rib

a. Regular weft rib: If in successive ribs same number of warp threads is used, regular weft rib effect is produced. This creates a regular appearance on fabric.

The count of warp yarn & number of warp yarn to be used depends on the desire rib width.

Regular rib structure is denoted by “1/1(A)  weft rib” where `A` indicates the number of warp threads. For example we can mention 1/1 (4) weft rib, 1/1 (3) weft rib etc.

b. Irregular rib: If in successive ribs same number of warp threads is used, regular weft rib effect is produced. This creates a irregular appearance on fabric.

The count of warp yarn & number of warp yarn to be used depends on the desire rib width.

Irregular rib structure is denoted by “1/1(A+B)  weft rib” where `A` indicates the number of warp threads. For example we can mention 1/1 (3+1)  weft rib, 1/1 (3+2) weft rib etc.

2.38 Matt weave:
This is constructed by extendedly the rib weaves both vertically & horizontally, so that in both direction there are two or more threads working together in the same order. Matt weave is divided into three types:

1. Regular matt weave
2. Irregular matt weave
3. Stitched matt weave

2.39 Features if matt weave:

• Two or more weft threads work together as a single unit and stays at same shed just like warp rib.
• Two or more warp threads work as single unit and both sides just like weft rib.
• Matt wave is obtained by combining warp & weft ribs.
• Matt weave has a greater resistance to tearing partly because it has more threads per inch, but chiefly because the threads are pairs it tends to give smooth surface and more flexible fabrics than plain weave.

Regular matt: In regular matt weave yarns of same count are used as warp yarns & weft and same number of warp & weft take part in successive interlacement.

As a results in both sides of fabric floating of warp & weft are seen. So in a repeat the number of warp and are equal. The regular matt is denoted by A/A (A) part in interlacement  as a single unit. For example we can mention , 2/2 (2),  3/3 (3), 4/4 (4) etc.

Irregular matt: In regular matt weave two number of warp & weft floating are different in number it is called irregular matt weave. That means irregular matt weave is the combination of irregular warp & weft ribs. .

As a results in both sides of fabric floating of warp & weft are seen. So in a repeat the number of warp and are equal. The regular matt is denoted by A/A (A+B) part in interlacement  as a single unit. For example we can mention 4/3 (3+2), 3/3 (3+4),  4/5 (4+3) etc.

Stitched matt weave: Generally for long floating matt structures become very rules. So to make the structures firm, in the center of every floats stitches are applied in case of warp floats are warp are lowered and that of weft floats the warps are lifted. For example

2.40 Factors affecting the prominence of twill wave:

a. Features of wave:

• The prominence of twill line depends an features of weave in the following ways.
• Twill line of short floats.
• Loss prominence twill line.
• Twill line of long floats more prominent twill line

b. Characteristics of yarn:
It influences twill line as below:-

• Twill of course at soft twisted yarn.
• More prominent twill line.
• Twill line of line and more twisted yarn
• Less proximate twill line.

c. Threads per inch: More no of ends or picks per inch causes more promoted

d. Direction of twill line in relation to yarn twist direction when direction of twill an fabric in opposite to direction of twist yarn. The twill become more promenaded and vice versa.

2.41 Derivatives of twill weaves:
There many derivatives of twill weave which is mention below:-

• Broken twill
• Combined twill
• Diamond design
• Diaper design
• Diagonal twill
• Elongated twill
• Herring twill
• Shaded twill
• Stepped twill
• Zigzag twill

2.42 Zigzag/ waved / pointed twill:
It is the simplest and me of the most important modification of twill weave produced by reversing the direction of twill at a suitable interval.

A point is selected (usually the last warp is selected) as the reversing point and so it is sometimes called as pointed twill in these twills pointed or straight draft is used. These twill is produced by combining S & Z twill.

According to the reversing of direction there are two type of Zigzag twill

1. Horizontal zigzag twill
2. Vertical zigzag twill

a. Horizontal zigzag twill:
When the reversal of direction of twill line occurs upon the warp yarn it result a horizontal zigzag twill. Here the basic twill is extended in warp direction. Here the no of warp in a repeat is double of the no of weft in horizontal zigzag twill pointed draft is use

b. Vertical zigzag twill:
When the reversal of direction of twill line occurs upon the warp yarn it result a vertical zigzag twill. Here the basic twill is extended in warp direction. Here the no of warp in a repeat is double of the no of weft in vertical zigzag twill pointed draft is used

Zigzag use: Ornamented design, wall coverage, screens honchoed items

2.43 Herring button twill:
These twills are constructed in a different menace from the ordinary twills. Thule it also depends an reversal  of twill direction here reversal of twill direction occurs of the a middle line.

Here at first basic twill is draw then no central pointed selected as zigzag twill. Rather in extended 2nd half of basic twill the flowing matters happens

• The floating points of first half become down in 2nd half.
• The down of first half become floating in 2nd half.

In herringbone twill straight draft is used. There are two types of herringbone design

• Horizontal herringbone twill.
• Vertical herringbone twill

2.44 Horizontal herringbone twill
When herringbone is created by extending the basic twill in warp direction horizontal herringbone twill in.

2.45 Vertical herringbone twill
When herringbone is created by extending the basic twill in warp direction Vertical herringbone twill in.

2.46 Diamond design:
It is a derivative of twill weave. It is constructed on the basic of zigzag twill principle. It is obtained by combining a horizontal and vertical zigzag twill. So here in the repent the no of both warp & welt threads are double. Then that in basic twill. Diamond designs are symmetrical about their vertical and horizontal axes. It these weave pointed draft is obtained.

To construct a diamond design of first the design repent is selected. Ti the basic twill 3/3 i.e 6×6 in size the repeat of design will be 12×12 in size

Uses: Towel, bed cover, table cover, pillow cover etc.

2.47 Diaper design:
These derivatives of twill weave is created an the basic of herringbone principles. This design is constructed by combining horizontal and vertical herringbone twill. In the repeat of a diaper design the no of warp and weft threads are two types more than that in its basic twill. So if the basic twill size is 8×8 its diaper design repeat size will be 16×16. In case of dipper design broken or straight draft is used.

Used: Same as diamond design

Broken twill:
This twill is obtained by breaking the twill line of a regular twill. It is somewhat similar in appearance to zigzag twill.

Broken twill can be obtained in different ways at first the basic twill is divided into two sections. Then the first section is kept unchanged and the 2nd section is reversed in its order. That is to say if the basic twill is made up of 8 warp threads namely 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 then it’s broken to its derivatives will obtain the order 1 2 3 4 8 7 6 5. Broken twill can be of warp way and weft any and in case of broken twill straight draft and broken draft is used.

Used: Shirting, suiting, designed fabric etc.

Stepped twill:
Stepped twill is produced by stepping continuous twill. There are two types of stepped twill.

1. Warp way stepped twill
2. Weft way stepped twill

i. Warp way stepped twill:
Here stepping is done in warp way

ii. Weft way stepped twill:
Here stepping is done in weft way

Elongated twill:
The twill angle form in cloth depends upon

• The relative ratio of ends and picks per unit length
• The rate of advancement of end interlacing with respect to the following one

Normally the twill angle is 45° where the ends and picks per unit area are equal. But in elongated twill the twill angle is more or less 45°. Any twill design without twill angle 45° is elongated twill.

Elongated twill formed in different ways

1. With the help of step no.
2. By selection or starting with a basic line

i. With the help of step no:
If the step no of elongated twill is twill is two then by taking only odd no of warp threads from the basic twill we can make the stepped twill. Here the warp no in stepped twill will be equal to the half of the basic twill.

Here at first a step no is two be selected in such way that the repeat of basic line become divisible by that step no

For example for twill with formula no the repeat size will be 14×14

It we select move no as two then in produced elongated twill the no of warp thread will be and that of weft thread will also be 7 in case of weft twill

Shaded twill:
The shaded twill are following types

• Single
• Double

Single shaded twill:
Here the shed effect becomes thick from thin. One after being thick it again starts to be thin and thus complete the whole repeat

Double shaded twill:
Here the shed stints from thin to thick and again it becomes thin

Uses of twill weave:
Twill weaves are extensively used in manufacturing cloths for garments, household cloths and industrial cloth

• Centrally diamond, diaper and zigzag twill are used for making pillow covers, denims, uphold story, bed sheets, towels etc
• Continuous twill are used for making fabrics for shirting shifting and panting (denim, gave dine )
• For making various types of ornamented cloths, other derivatives of twill weave.
• Herringbone twill are used in the cloth of suiting and overcoats

Sateen or satin weave:
Sateen or satin is the third basic twill. Though it is almost like twill weave if is not a derivative. Twill weave in pure sateen or satin weave the structure of the cloth. Insist either warp or weft fatlings all over here in a repeat of weave each thread of one series passes over all but one thread of the other series.

2.48 The features of sateen weave are mention below:

1. The main characteristics of these weave is that it produces very smooth surfaced fabrics.
2. In this fabric floating is more.
3. Low twisted yarn is used in this weave
4. It produces fabric with a maximum degree of smoothness & unsure without any prominent weave feature
5. These weave may be warp faced or weft faced
6. When ….. with ….. twill weave this is the most loss structure

2.49 Classification of sateen or station weaves:
2 types

a. Warp sateen

• Regular warp sateen
• Irregular warp sateen

b. Weft satin

• Regular weft satin
• Irregular weft satin

2.50 Selection of step value or move number:
For selecting move no or step value the no of repeat size is divided into two unequal numbers in such a way that

• Summation of two numbers is equal to the origin no
• The origin no that is repent size no is not be divisible by any of the  two numbers
• No common value is present between the two numbers
• One and are less origin no can’t be move no.

Warp sateen:
If on the surface of fabric warp floating are pre dominantly seen the sateen is called warp sateen.

Warp sateen is expressed by  where A is the warp floats and B’ is the move no or step value. For example  etc.

Floating of warp may range from 4 to 12 but generally it is not more then 8 to 9 commonly 5 to 6 floating are used.

In warp sateen move no. is taken in the direction of weft and floating are taken in the direction of warp.

Warp sateen are two types:-

1. Regular warp sateen
2. Irregular warp sateen

a. Regular warp sateen:
In regular warp sateen move no. is fixed. Here each warp makes are and only are intersection with in a repeat. The intersection are distributed in an orderly manner and they are uniformly separated from each other. As the distance moved is time is equal a certain degree of twilling is formed

For instructing regular warp sateen at first the repent size is sleeted. Then from

The repeat size a step value is taken move number in the direction of weft and thus design is often.

b. Irregular warp sateen:
In irregular warp sateen there is no fixed move number value. Irregular warp sateen, in case of irregular warp sateen size is selected then interlacing points are put on the repeat reregulating as wish. but the thing should be kept in mind that in very end and pick only interlacement should be present and then, an example is given below:-

Weft satin:
If on the surface of fabric weft floating are predominantly seen the system is called weft satin.

Weft satin is expressed by  where `A` is the weft floating and `B` is the move number or step value. For example ,  etc.

In weft satin move number is taken in the direction of warp and weft floating are taken in the direction of weft satin are of two types:

1. Regular satin
2. Irregular satin

a. Regular weft satin:
In regular weft satin move number is fixed. Here each pick makes one and only one interlacement with warp within a repeat. The intersection is distributed in an orderly manner and they are unfortunately from each other. As the distance moved every time is fixed and equal a certain degree of twilling is foamed.

For constructing a regular weft satin at first a repeat size is selected. Then a step is taken rule wise. Then the interlacing points are taken by using step value in warp direction and floating is taken in weft direction. Thus the design in obtained.

b. Irregular weft satin: In irregular weft satin no fixed move number/step value is maintained. They are totally free twill line but have short opposite diagonal lines.

Increase of irregular weft satin, at first a repeat size is selected. Then interlacing points are put irregulars on the repeat by going forward in warp direction. But are thing should be kept in mind that in every end and pick only are interlacement should be present and the interlacing points should not be accumulate in a certain area.

Usages of sateen/satin: Sateen/ satin weave are extensively used for making fabrics for coats and suits moreover it is used for manufacturing weaving cloths house hold cloths etc.

2.51 Fabric Thickness:
For measuring the thickness of a wire or a plate or calipers the micrometers are used. But the use of these things for the measurement of thickness of fabric is not possible, since fabric is liable to compress during measuring. Therefore the measurement of fabric thickness depends accuracy.

2.52 Fabric Thickness Tester:
Determination of thickness of fabric samples in laboratory is usually carried out with the help of a precision thickness gauge. In this equipment, the fabric whose thickness is to be determined is kept on a flat anvil and a circular pressure foot is pressed on to it from the top under a standard fixed load. The Dial Indicator directly gives the Thickness in mm.

The principle of measurement of fabric thickness is based on
“The precise measurement of the distance between two plane parallel plates separated by the cloth when a known pressure is applied and maintained on the plates.”

2.53 Details of the Main Unit of Fabric Thickness Tester:

1. Anvil
2. Circular Pressure Foot (Dia. 10 mm).
3. Zero Setting Dial Gauge (Bezel).
4. Knob for zero setting of the Dial Gauge.
5. Dead Weight (As Per Standards).
6. Lifting Lever.
7. Grub Screw for Calibration.
8. Circular Pressure Foot (Dia. 25 mm).

2.54 Principle of measurement of fabric thickness:
The fabric is kept between two plane parallel plates and maintained. Then the distance between the plates & maintained. Then the distance between the plates is measured precisely.

2.55 The following points need consideration in fabric thickness measurement:

a. Shape & size of presser foot:
Normally a circular foot of diameter 3/8 inch is used. The ratio between the foot diameter between to the cloth thickness should not be less than 5:1.

b. Shape & size of the anvil:
If the anvil is of circular type its diameter should be at least 2 inch greater than the presser . When the sample is larger than the anvil, a smooth plane broad may conventionally surround the anvil for suitable support for the cloth.

c. Applied presser:
Weights may be added  to the presser foot and preferred presser  may be applied .

d. Velocity of presser foot:
The presser foot should be lowered on to the sample very slowly & carefully.

e. Time:
The thickness is read from the dial of the instrument only when the pointer ceased vibrations  not earlier.

f. Indication of thickness:
Usually a clock-type dial gauge is built into the thickness tester. It should be rigidly mounted in a suitable frame. After setting the dial to zero, the instrument must be capable of measuring to an accuracy of 1% for fabric over 0.1mm in thickness and to 0.001mm for fabrics which are not exceeding 0.1mm in thickness.

2.56 Method of measuring thickness:

• The presser foot & the anvil are cleaned by a clean paper.
• If required weight are added to presser foot and the gauge is set to read zero.
• No specimen preparation is required. but selvedge & creased area should be avoided.
• If possible the cloth may be conditioned for about 24 hours in standard atmosphere.
• At least, thickness is measured at 5 places and the mean value is reported.
• In test report, details of the presser, size of the presser foot and the time should be given.

2.57 Cover factor:
Fabric cover factor is the ratio of the area covered by the yarns to the whole area of the fabric. For any fabric there are two cover factors: the warp cover factor & the weft cover factor. The cloth cover factor is obtained by adding the weft cover factor to the warp cover factor. The cover can be adjusted to allow for yarns for different relative densities either because of yarn structure or because of the raw material used. The cover factors in SI units are calculated by multiplying the threads per centimeter by the square root of the linear density of the yarn (in tex) and dividing by 10. The resultant cover factor  differs by less than 5% from the cotton cover factor pioneered by Peirce and expressed as the number of threads per inch divided by the square root of the cotton yarn count. In SI units cover factor is:

2.58 Warp cover factor:
Warp cover factor is the EPI to the root of the warp count

2.59 Weft cover factor:
Weft cover factor is the PPI to the root of the weft count

2.60 Cloth Cover Factor:
It the fraction of the area of the fabric covered by both warp & weft threads. Simple addition of the relative warp & weft covers does not give the correct result, because in this way, the areas where one set of threads crosses the other area are counted twice. These areas equal to n1+n2+d1+d2

Hence,

Relative cloth cover = [Relative warp cover + Relative weft cover]-[Relative warp cover Relative weft cover]

Multiplying by 28 we obtain the cloth coverWhere,

K1 = Warp cover factor

K2 = Weft cover factor

2.61 Ends per inch:
EPI is the number of warp threads per inch of woven fabric. In general, the higher the ends per inch, the finer the fabric is. The current fashion is to wear t-shirts with a higher thread count, such as soft and comfortable “30 single” tee shirt that has 30 threads per inch as contrasted to the standard t-shirt with an 18 thread count per inch.  The number of ends per inch in a piece of woven cloth varies depending on what stage the cloth is at. Before the cloth is woven the warp has a certain number of ends per inch, which is directly related to what size reed is being used. After weaving the number of ends per inch will increase, and it will increase again after being washed.

2.62 Picks per inch:
PPI is the number of weft threads per inch of woven fabric. A pick is a single weft thread, hence the term. In general, the higher the picks per inch, the finer the fabric is.

2.63 Determination EPI & PPI/Fabric count:
The determination of the number of threads per inch may be made in the following way:

Use of counting glass (pick glass):
The counting glass is a small magnifying glass in a stand over a square exactly one inch each way. The number of threads in the field directly gives the number of threads per inch. This is the method generally used.

Travelling thread counter:
This is also called as mechanical pick counter it consists of a small microscope arranged to travel horizontally on a calibrated track. The microscope is fitted with a pointer at zero and made to traverse on the cloth, counting the yarns as they pass under the needle point for a known distance. Then the number of yarns per inch is calculated.

Fabric Dissection:
In this method, a known width is unraveled and the threads are difficult to distinguish as in felted threads or where the structure is complex, as in pile fabrics.

Parallel line grating:
It is very rapid optical method and this can be straight away taken for the determination of ends per inch and picks per inch.

Taper line grading:
It is an optical method and is a development of parallel line grating.

2.64 Method of using counting glass:
If the counting glass is used, it is convenient to use a light table, a box with a ground glass top & containing several electric bulbs. The number of ends & picks per inch should be counted in five different places, not containing the same threads twice and, of course, not near the selvedge, because the spacing of the threads near selvedge is often a little different than in the body of the cloth. If there are fewer than 25 threads/inch, the number of threads in 3 inches should be counted each time & the result is divided by 3. If the fabric is less than 3 inches wide the total number of ends should be counted and divided by the width.

In the case of pile fabrics another pair of counts is of importance. The number of tufts or loops per inch, counted in the warp wise direction known as row. The number of tufts or loops per inch, counted in the weft wise direction, is known as pitch.

The construction of cloth is usually designated by a combination of figures such as 100 60.  This means 100 ends per inch & 60 picks per inch. Fabric count is also expressed in the same manner as 100 60. The result should be read as one hundred by sixty not as 6000.

2.65 Fabric weight:
The weight of a fabric can be described in the following two ways:

1. Weight per unit area in terms of ounces per square yard or grams per square meter.
2. Weight per unit length in terms of ounces per yard or grams per meter.

The weight of a fabric can be determined by one of the following three methods:

First method:
Weighing of an entire cut, roll or bale of fabric when the length and width of fabric are known, using the following formula,

Where,

M = weight of fabric in pounds.

L = Length of fabric in yards.

W = Width of fabric in inches

Weight per unit area in gm./sq meter = 33.906 oz/sq.yd

Weight per unit length in gm./sq meter = 33.906 oz/yd

This method is found useful where the fabric is weighted immediately prior to shipping and serves as a check against sales specifications.

Second Method:
Weighing of 1 yard lengths of a fabric. This weight is called as weight per running yard. The weight of a unit length of fabric will be affected by its width. Therefore it is necessary to know the agreed standard width upon which the weight per running yard is based.

Third Method:
Weighing of small specimens which have been cut from the fabric. These specimens should not be smaller than 4 square inches area and if sufficient fabric is available, the desirable minimum area is 20 square inches. With the use of a die of proper size, the samples can be prepared much faster.

Some quadrant balances have one scale graduated in ounces per square yard. A template of area 1/100sq. yard is used to cut the sample and is suspended from the sample hook of the quadrant balance and the reading is noted directly against the pointer on the scale. For quick checks this method is used.

The weight per square yard of the fabric can also be determined from the weights of warp and weft using following formulas:

Weight of warp in 1sq. yard of the fabric =  ounces

Weight of weft in 1sq. yard of the fabric =  ounces

Where,

N1 = Count of warp yarn

N2 = Count of weft yarn

n1 = Ends per inch

n2 = Picks per inch

C1 = Warp crimp

C2 = Weft crimp

Then,
Weight per sq. yard of the fabric in ounces = weight of warp + weight of weft

2.67 Yarn Count:
Count is a numerical value, which express the coarseness or fineness (diameter) of the yarn and also indicate the relationship between length and weight (the mass per unit length or the length per unit mass) of that yarn. Therefore, the concept of yarn count has been introduced which specifies a certain ratio of length to weight.

It also expresses whether the yarn is thick or thin. A definition of yarn is given by textile institute “Count is a number indicating the mass per unit length or the length per unit mass of yarn”.

2.68 Types of Yarn Count:

1. Direct Count System
2. Indirect Count System

i. Direct Count System:
The weight of a fixed length of yarn is determined. The weight per unit length is the yarn count! The common features of all direct count systems are the length of yarn is fixed and the weight of yarn varies according to its fineness. Thus higher the count coarser the yarn.

The following formula is used to calculate the yarn count:

N = (W/l) / (L/w)

Where,

N = Yarn count or numbering system
W = Weight of the sample at the official regain in the unit of the system
L = Length of the sample
l = Unit of length of the sample

Tex, denier, pounds per spindle is the unit which is expressed in direct system.

Tex: The yarn number or count in the Tex system is the weight in grams of 1000m or 1 km of yarn.

Tex = Weight in grams/Length in 1000m or 1 km

Denier: The yarn count in the denier system is the weight in grams of 9000m or 9km of yarn.

Denier = Weight in grams/Length in 9000m or 9 km

Pounds per spindle: The yarn count in pounds per spindle is the weight in pounds of 14,400yards of yarn. Jute count is expressed by this system.

Pounds per spindle = Weight in pounds / length in 14400 yards

From above discussion it is concluded that, higher the yarn number (count) coarser the yarn and lower the number finer the yarn.

Indirect Count System:
The length of a fixed weight of yarn is measured. The length per unit weight is the yarn count. The common features of all indirect count systems are the weight of yarn is fixed and the Length of yarn varies according to its fineness. Thus higher the count finer the yarn.The following formula is used to calculate they are count:

N = (L×w) / W×l

Where,

N = Yarn count or numbering system
W = Weight of the sample at the official regain in the unit of the system
L = Length of the sample
l = Unit of length of the sample
w = Unit of weight of the sample.

English count, metric count, Worsted are expressed in indirect system.

English: It is defined as the number of hanks (840 yards) per pounds. It is denoted by Ne.

Metric: It is defined as the number of hanks (1000 m) per kg. It is defined by Nm.

Worsted: It is defined as the number of hanks (560 yards) per pounds.

The Ne indicate show many hanks of 840 yards length weigh one English pound. So that 32 Ne Means 32 hanks of 840yards i.e.32×840 yards length weigh one pound.

3. Universal system:
Tex system of yarn numbering is called as universal system. This is a direct system of yarn numbering and is introduced by International standards Organization & various organizations of textile scientist’s technologist & manufacturers. This system is applicable to yarns made from natural as well as synthetic fibres and hence useful for replacing the several different systems which are being used in various sectors of the textile industry all over the world.

Tex system can be used from fibre to yarn stage. The fineness of the fibre can be Expressed in terms of militex, i.e, weight of fibre in mg in one km length and the fineness of the cords & ropes are expressed in terms of Kilotex, i.e, the weight of the material in kg in one km length.

2.69 Determination of yarn count by Quadrant balance:

Analytical Balance:
In the mills, the leas of yarn are wrapped using the wrap reel & their weight are found out using the analytical balance. The weight are measured in terms of grains and the count is calculated using the formula:

Count Ne = 1000/weight of lea in grains

Quadrant Balance:
In textile testing lab we have to measure yarn count of different length .Where some are long but some are short. All the machine or balance can’t measure the count of short lengths yarn. To overcome this obstacle a balance name Quadrant was made to measure the count of yarn containing the length less than 120 yards and this is a direct reading yarn count balance.

2.70 Machine parts:
This balance is consisting with the following parts:

1. Quadrant scale
2. Pillar
3. Pointer
4. Counter weight
5. Yarn sample
6. Sample hook
7. Leveling screw

2.71 Machine Description:
This balance have a quadrant scale which is divided into other three scale including the top one scale is used to find the weight per square yard of sample the middle one find the count of yarn length 8 yard and finally the third one is to find the count of yarn of length 40 yards. A pillar is used to hold all the parts and the Quadrant scale is attached with the pillar by a pivot. Another pivot hold a pointer which mark the reading on the scale. the same  pivot hold a beam which has a sample hook at one end and at a counter weight in another. At the base of the balance there is a leveling screw by which we can leveled the instruments.

Finally when we put the sample in the sample hook adjusting with the counter weight per pointer show the count of yarn directly on the scale. One important thing is that we have to calibrate the balance before we use it. The pointer of this machine will read 40s on 40 yards scale when it is leveled but if not we have to calibrate again property.

Wrap reel meter:
Wrap reel is an advanced instrument designed to prepare lea with high accurate length measurement. Weber tailor made Wrap reel Electronic is designed for Textiles and brings Yarn Wrap and Skein Reels to produce up to 7 yarn skeins of an accurately predetermined length and number of wraps for further count (Linear Density) determination or skein strength testing.  The wrap reel allows the user to wind yarn thread with the required length, and then test its strength of lea and quality. The equipment disarrays the yarn thread and prevents overlapping.

These motorized wrap reels feature micro processor based programmable counter which is provided to select the revolution. The sleek design and user friendly interface of these reels make them ideal for garment manufacturing..

Wrap Reel Electronic is used to produce skeins of yarn of a pre-determined length and number of turns for count and/or strength testing 1 meter 36″ or 54″ circumference collapsible swift. The wrap reel is complete with yarn package stand and pre-tension device, fitted with pre-determined digital speed counter. Available with hand operated crank or electronic variable speed drive with soft start and braking for accurate length determination.

2.72 Features:

• Wrap Reel is highly efficient.
• It is reliable in performance.
• A longer service life
• The system is used to test lea strength.
• The system is used to calculate yarn count measurement.
• The system is used to calculate length measurement.
• It is used for rapid preparation of accurate lengths of yarn.
• For subsequent weighing and determination of count and strength of the yarn.
• It gives accurate and perfect result of final count/denier of the yarn sample/specimen.

2.73 Specifications:

• Wrap reels available in Metric and English system
• Hand version with mechanical indicator of the length
• Electric version with pre-selector and digital indicator of the cycle count
• Use of mechanical brakes
• Speed from 50 up to 300 r.p.m.
• Special type with tension device
• Wrapping simultaneously 7 or 10 yarn hanks.
• Complete with support creel and double-bar tensioner.
• Equipped with pre-determined digital counter (reel turns from 1 to 999).
• Speed 150 mt/min.
• The moveable arm makes hanks removal easier.
• Steel-Aluminum frame

2.74 How Wrap Reel Works:

• Bobbins/Yarn Cones are placed on the Yarn Cone Stand.
• The end of the yarn has to be passed through the Tensioning Device into the ceramic eyelids, through to the ceramic pigtail and finally onto the plate with screw heads. The free end of the yarn has to be tied on the screw head by making few rounds.
• The main is put on and the counter is set at desired setting (90 for Denier) with the help of thumb wheel setting.
• After the required revolutions, Wrap Reel will stop automatically.
• The free end of each of the Leas has to be united with the other end of the same Leas. The Bobbin side near the knot has to be cut.
• The collapsible mechanism is lowered in the swift/wheel.
• The made-out leas can be used for determination of count or strength of the yarn etc.

2.75 Beeslay balance:
It is working on the principle of fixed weight and fixed system. It is used for assorting the count of warp and weft yarns from a small sample of fabric. It consists of a pillar A which carries a cross beam B, fulcrum med at knife edge at the point G.

At one end the cross beam is a hook E upon which the yarn to be tested can be placed. The other end of the beam tappers to a point C. When the beam is in balance, the pointer will coincide with the datum line or the arrow mark on the beam. The pillar is mounted on the base. The whole instrument is leveled by a leveled screw at one end of the base. The cross beam has a small notch at the point D to take the counter weight or rider.  A template is also supplied with the instrument and it can be used to measure full cotton, 1/2 cotton lengths, samples of woolen and worsted yarns. Depending upon the material to be tested and the quality available, the said length can be chosen to cut the samples of length correspondingly marked.

Here,

A = Pillar

B = Beam

C = Pointer

D = Notch

E = Simple hook

F = Datum line

G = Pivot

H = Levelling Screw

I = Template

In template,

1 = Linen

2 = Wool

3 = ½ cotton

4 = Full

5 = Worsted

The pointer is set directly opposite to the datum line, with no material and counter weight in their proper places, by adjusting the leveling screw. The counter weight for the particular length which is supplied with the instrument is chosen and suspended at the notch D. For example, for full cotton the large rider placed in the notch and for ½ cotton small rider is placed. Then it is hung in the sample hook. The samples are added to the samples hook, until the pointer comes in level with the datum line. At that stage the threads are taken out and counted which gives directly the count of yarn taken for testing. If there are 30 threads in the samples hook at the balanced condition. Then the count of the yarn is 30s

CHAPTER: THREE

Methodology:

3.1 Sample materials
Ten specific samples were collected from R & D department of Sinha Textile Group for completed our thesis. Those samples are listed below:

• Dobby
• Boxy
• Rib Stop
• Oxford
• Plain
• 3/1 Left Hand Twill
• Zigzag Twill
• Bedford Cord
• 2/1 Right Hand Twill
• Ottoman

3.2 Instruments
For sample analysis various instruments are used, such as:

• Counting glass
• Needle
• Beasley’s balance
• GSM cutter
• Electric balance

3.3 Counting glass:
Counting glass is used to determine the reed and pick in woven fabric. Reed is actually number of ends or number of warp threads per inch and by picks we mean the number of picks or number of weft threads per inch.

3.4 Procedure:

• Keep the test sample on a flat table and smoothen it out.
• Set the pointer of the counting glass at zero.
• Place the counting glass on the fabrics in a direction parallel to warp if weft density is to be determined and parallel to weft if warp density is to be determined.
• Find the number of warp or weft threads in a specified length as required.
• Following the procedure prescribed in steps 1 to 4, determine the number of warp and weft threads per centimeter or inch in at least four more places.
• Calculate the number of warp or weft threads per centimeter or inch by the following formula: n = N ÷ L

Where
n = Number of warp or weft threads per centimeter (or inch),
N = Observed number of threads in the distance L, and
L = Distance in centimeter (or inch) across which the threads are counted.

Then, Calculate the mean of all the values and report it as the number of warp or weft threads per centimeter or inch of the fabric.

3.5 Needle:
A needle is generally a thin, cylindrical object, often with a sharp point on the end.

3.6 Beasley’s balance
Beasley Balance is used in textile industry for measuring the direct yarn count. The range is manufactured using high-grade aluminum beam which is pivoted at a bracket with the assistance of two jewel bearings. Also the beam of the balance has a stainless steel hook for putting the yarn and the pointer side has a slit for placing the weight. The beam assembly is fitted in a sheet metal box having a sliding transparent window that prevents the flow of air in the instrument. Further, we offer this instrument with a template for cutting fabric in various sizes. The instrument is chrome plated & painted with metallic dark gray to get a corrosion resistance finish.

3.7 Procedure

• A standard weight is suspended in a notch on the beam arm on the pointer side.
• A template is used to cut short lengths of yarn, the length depending upon the count system required.
• These lengths are placed on the hook until the pointer comes against the Datum line.
• The number of short lengths required to balance the beam gives the count of the yarn

3.8 GSM cutter
GSM means grams per square meter of a knit, woven or non woven fabric. It is essential to know the weight of the fabric before manufacturing and after getting the finished fabric. It needs to measure the weight of the fabric to be sure about the finished weight of the fabric. This test can be carried out in different ways but it is very easy to know the weight of the fabric by cutting the fabric with the GSM cutter.

3.9 Procedure

• Taking the sample of fabric from bulk and conditioning for 4.30 to 06 hours
• Cut the fabric with the GSM cutter (gram per square cm).
• Weight the fabric with the electric balance.
• The cut sample is 100 sq.cm. The weight of the cut sample is multiplied by 100.
• The result is the GSM of that particular fabric.

3.10 Electric balance
An electric balance is a weighing device that digitally shows the weight of a substance. It is used for weighing chemicals in labs and is very important for measuring them to the precision of carrying out different experiments.

3.11 Procedure

• At first the electric balance were calibrated.
• Then we took the sample and put on the electric balance.
• At last we saw the reading on the balance and collected it.

CHAPTER: FOUR

Results and Discussion
Ten woven fabric samples were collected from factory to carry out the experiment. The specifications of specific samples are given in the following section:

4.1 Structure and design

4.2 Sample-1

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: (32 x 20) / (152 x 85)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 215

Thread Density:

• EPI: 152
• PPI: 85

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 32
• Weft Count: 20

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 26.9
• Weft: 19
• Total: 27.7

Dobby Design:
This design is dobby because it is very complicated design. Dobby weave is a patterned fabric like jacquard weave but the patterns are smaller. Dobby Weave produces an all over figured fabrics. The figures are bird’s eye, small diamonds with a dot at the center, or smaller geometric patterns. The construction of the Dobby weave is very complex and the design is repeated frequently. Dobby weave is created on dobby machines. The machine selectively raises some warp threads and selectively depresses others with the help of a dobby card.

4.3 Sample-2

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: {(16 + 16) x (16×16)} / (108 x 56)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 264

Thread Density:

• EPI: 108
• PPI: 56

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 16+16
• Weft Count: 16+16

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 38.2
• Weft: 19.8
• Total: 31

Boxy Design:
This design is boxy or matt design because it is a variation of the plain weave. In this, two or more than two warps yarns cross alternately side-by-side with two or more than two filling yarns. This type of weave resembles a plaited basket. In basket weave the fabrics have a loose construction and a flat appearance. The weave is more pliable and stronger than a plain weave but it is not as stable.

4.4 Sample-3

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: (21 x 21)/(110 x 72)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 197

Thread Density:

• EPI: 110
• PPI: 72

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 21
• Weft Count: 21

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 24
• Weft: 15.7
• Total: 26.2

Rib Stop:
This design is rib stop design because it has combination of plain and matt.

4.5 Sample-4

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: {(40+40)×30/2}/(120×80)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 131

Thread Density:

• EPI: 120
• PPI: 80

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 40+40
• Weft Count: 30/2

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 26.8
• Weft: 20.7
• Total: 27.7

Oxford Design:
This design is oxford design because oxford weave fabric consists of two, thin warp yarns woven to every soft, thicker yarn in the filling direction. The unbalanced construction of the fabric causes the thin yarns to break and leave tiny holes. Oxford Weave is fine, soft and lightweight. It is mainly used in apparel.

4.6 Sample-5

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: (40×40)/(133×72)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 123

Thread Density:

• EPI: 133
• PPI: 72

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 40
• Weft Count: 40

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 21
• Weft: 11.4
• Total: 23.9

Plain Design:
This design is Plain design because each weft yarn goes alternately over and under one warp yarn. Each warp yarn goes alternately over and under each weft yarn.

4.7 Sample-6

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: (16×12)/(116×56)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 280

Thread Density:

• EPI: 116
• PPI: 56

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 16
• Weft Count: 12

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 29
• Weft: 16.2
• Total: 28.4

3/1 Left Hand Twill Design:
This design is 3/1 Left Hand Twill design because left hand twill also known as “s twill”, is a weave in which the grain line runs from the top-left hand corner of the fabric to the bottom right which is the opposite of right hand twill.

4.8 Sample-7

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: (22×22)/(133×68)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 205

Thread Density:

• EPI: 133
• PPI: 68

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 22
• Weft Count: 22

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 28.4
• Weft: 14.5
• Total: 28.2

Zigzag Twill Design:
This design is zigzag twill design because the twill progresses in one direction for half of the repeat and then is reversed for the next half of the repeat.

4.9 Sample-8

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: (20×16)/(154×80)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 284

Thread Density:

• EPI: 154
• PPI: 80

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 20
• Weft Count: 16

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 34.4
• Weft: 20
• Total: 29.8

Bedford cord Design:
This design is Bedford cord design because it has combination of irregular twill and plain weave.

4.10 Sample-9

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: (20×20+70D)/(120×48)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 187

Thread Density:

• EPI: 120
• PPI: 48

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 20
• Weft Count: 20+70D

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 26.8
• Weft: 12
• Total: 27.3

2/1 Right Hand Twill Design:
This design is 2/1 Right Hand Twill design because right hand twill, also known as “z twill, it can be recognized by the upward direction of the diagonal twill on the face of the fabric as it runs from lower left toward upper right.

4.11  Sample-10

Actual picture:

Design analysis:

Construction: (16×10)/(100×49)

GSM Calculation:

From Construction:

By GSM Cutter: 278

Thread Density:

• EPI: 100
• PPI: 49

Thread Count:

• Warp Count: 16
• Weft Count: 10+10

Cover Factor:

• Warp: 25
• Weft: 21.9
• Total: 27.3

Ottoman Design:
This design is ottoman design because when ribs are made by a cotton, worsted, silk, or rayon filling which does not show on either the face or the back, because the warp covers the filling entirely. It is called Ottoman Cord or Ottoman rib when a warp rib is employed.

4.12  Thread density
Thread density is the number of warp and weft threads per inch of woven fabric. Thread density is denoted by EPI and PPI. It is very important for GSM and cover factor. But the GSM and cover factor also depend on the thread count.

From the Table 4.1; we have seen that the EPI is always greater than PPI. The highest EPI is 154 of Bedford cord and the lowest EPI is 100 of ottoman. Also we see that the highest PPI is 85 of Dobby and the lowest PPI is 48 of 2/1 RHT. In theoretically EPI must be greater than PPI. EPI is greater than PPI in our result. So all the results we have found in thread density comply with the theoretical concept.

Table 4.1: Thread density of different types of woven fabric

4.15 Thread count
Count is a numerical value, which express the coarseness or fineness (diameter) of the yarn and also indicate the relationship between length and weight (the mass per unit length or the length per unit mass) of that yarn. Therefore, the concept of yarn count has been introduced which specifies a certain ratio of length to weight. Thread count is expressed by warp and weft yarn. Thread count is very important for GSM and cover factor. But the GSM and cover factor are also depend on the thread density.

From the Table 4.2; we have seen that the highest warp count is 40 Ne of Plain and the lowest warp count is 8 Ne (16+16) of Boxy. Also we see that the highest weft count is 40 Ne of Plain and the lowest weft count is 5 Ne (10+10) of Ottoman. Ne (English Count) is the indirect system. In theoretically higher Ne must be finer than lower Ne. So all the results we have collected regarding thread count comply with the theory.

Table 4.2: Thread count of different types of woven fabric

4.18 GSM
GSM’ means ‘Gram per square meter’ that is the weight of fabric in gram per one square meter. By this we can compare the fabrics in unit area which is heavier and which is lighter.

From the Table 5.3 and Figure 5.23; we were seen that some variation of GSM of by GSM Cutter and GSM from Construction. Here GSM from Construction are always greater from by GSM Cutter. In case of by GSM Cutter; the highest GSM is 284 of Bedford cord and the lowest GSM is 123 of Plain. Also in case of GSM from Construction; the highest GSM is 321 of Bedford cord and the lowest GSM is 130 of Plain. But GSM from Construction and by GSM Cutter is almost close to each other.

Table 4.3: GSM of different types of woven fabric

4.21 Cover factor
Cover factor is a number that indicates the extent to which the area of a fabric is covered by one set of threads. For any woven fabric, there are two cover factors: a warp cover factor and a weft cover factor. It is depends on thread density and thread count. The higher the thread density is the higher the cover factor but the higher the thread count is the lower the cover factor.

From the Table 4.4 we were seen that the highest warp cover factor is 38.2 of Boxy and the lowest warp cover factor is 21 of Plain. Also we were seen that the highest weft cover factor is 21.9 of Ottoman and the lowest weft cover factor is 11.4 of Plain. Further we were seen that the highest total cover factor is 31 of Boxy and the lowest cover factor is 23.9 of Plain. So all the results we have got regarding cover factor comply with the theory.

Table 4.4: Cover factor of different types of woven fabric

4.24 Weave design
Woven fabrics are made by using two or more sets of yarn interlaced at right angles to each other. Much variety is produced by weaving.

A woven cloth is formed by the interlacement of two sets of threads, namely, warp and weft threads. These threads are interlaced with one another according to the type of weave or design. The warp threads are those that run longitudinally along the length of the fabric and the weft threads are those that run transversely across the fabric. For the sake of convenience the warp threads are termed as ends and the weft as picks or fillings.

From the Table 6.5 we see that the different types of woven design. Those designs were very commonly design. We were found those designs with the help of counting glass and needle. At first we were seen the warp and weft yarn direction. Then we separated the warp yarn one by one and drawn the weave pattern on the excel sheet and we found the weave plan. Then we selected the repeat size of that weave. After that we drew the drafting plan on the above of the weave plan and lifting plan was drawn on the left side of the weave plan. So in our result of thread density in all most correct to the base of theory.

Table 4.5: Weave design of different types of woven fabric

Table: 4.6 Cover factor on various constructed woven fabric

CHAPTER: FIVE

Conclusion and Recommendation

6.1 Conclusion
The analysis showed that the different types of samples differ in their weave design, shedding mechanism and fabric structure etc. All the processes of analysis of fabrics were conducted in a practical approach, where the basic parameters such as thread density (EPI, PPI), thread count, GSM and cover factor etc. were studied.

Fabrics are manufactured in wide varieties and design; different design and effect are produced on the fabric with the help of various mechanisms.

The cover factor are effected the thread density (EPI, PPI), Fabric Count, GSM etc. If we control cover factor of the fabric we best quality of fabric.

6.2 Recommendation
Based on our findings, following recommendation can be made for the factory:-

In future try to produce the same cover factor and others are variable and then thread count is same but others are variable and so on, also different weave design.

Research and development (R&D) works need to be initiated in Sinha Textile Group to identify the reasons why the fabrics are not produced “right-first-time”.

Old hand loom need to be replaced with new one for produce sample properly.

Analytical sample lab should be set-up to check the quality of Counting Glass, Beasley’s balance, GSM Cutter and Electric Balance before use.

The machine stoppage time should be analyzed and minimized. The maintenance should be carried out when the machine is out of action and routine maintenance should be carried out regularly.

References

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Mazharul Islam Kiron

Founder & Editor of Textile Learner. He is a Textile Consultant, Blogger & Entrepreneur. He is working as a textile consultant in several local and international companies. He is also a contributor of Wikipedia.

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