Comparative Analysis of Different Types of Woven Fabrics

This thesis provides a collection of knowledge about the most common woven fabric analysis. Fabrics can be constructed in a variety of ways, ranging from the matting together of fibrous materials to the intricate interlacing of complex yarn systems. By applying some tools and techniques to these fabrics, it is possible to produce different appearances and designs in their structure. Woven fabric analysis depends on some important factors such as thread density, thread count, GSM, where a weave plan plays a vital role. On the basis of different structures and designs of the fabrics, the result of analysis may be varied. The aim of this research was to make a practical investigation into different types of woven fabrics industrially produced in Bangladesh and make a comparison among them based on their different characteristics. By collecting ten woven fabric samples, an intensive analysis of specific structures and designs was done. The number of ends per inch and picks per inch in a weave repeat, the variation of design and structure may change the cover factor and GSM of the fabric, making an intimate relation with thread density, which is also responsible for changing the design and structure of the fabric. Weave design declares the lifting plan, drafting plan, and any design of the fabrics. The difference among the weave design is majorly responsible for the change in the fabric’s appearance. Shedding mechanism is also a vital issue for creating a fabric structure. These are illustrated in this thesis.

Chapter 1

Introduction

Introduction and Research Background

Weaving is a process of formation of fabric with interlacement of two or more sets of yarns using a stable machine called a loom. It is still not certain when the weaving process was introduced to human society. Except for a few activities elsewhere, the major developments in textiles took place in England. In England, the major shift from agriculture to the woolen industry came in the 14th century. During all these years and a few hundred years after the 14th century, cloth was produced on hand-looms which were not equipped with a fly shuttle.

In 1733, John Kay invented the fly shuttle, which enabled weft to be inserted more rapidly. Edmund Cartwright, an English clergyman, invented a so-called power loom which could be operated from a single point by two strong men. Fortunately, steam power was available by 1765. Soon power looms were driven by steam and most of the wooden parts were replaced with iron. These looms then were stopped every few minutes in order to replace the empty weft pirns or cop in the shuttle, and this limited the number of looms a weaver could operate to about four. James Northrop, an Englishman, invented an automatic weft transfer system which replaced the weft pirn in the shuttle without slowing or stopping the loom in 1889.

Similar developments took place elsewhere also. Ruti, a major loom maker of Switzerland, manufactured an automatic bobbin-changing Northrop loom in 1898. After World War II, more productivity and efficiency were essential to overcome increasing labor costs in Western countries. Limitations of shuttle looms and relative terms should be considered, and efficiencies in looms with conventional picking. Productivity of these machines will continue to be limited as long as their fundamental constructions involve the use of shuttle propulsion. It is known that the power required for picking is proportional to the cube of the loom speed. If the loom speed is increased from 200 to 300 picks per minute, the power requirement would increase by a factor of (3/2)³, i.e. 3.4 times approximately.

The emphasis on productivity and quality has developed the weaving technology very much and as a result the working hours required to weave fabric from loom have been reduced from about 20 to 0.25 during the last 125 years, and in the last 50 years there has been a reduction of 95% in operative hours per standard unit produced.

But this is not all. To achieve the high production, we must control every point of production. Weaving is the heart of textiles. There are many types of fabric, such as woven, knitted, nonwoven, etc. But woven fabric is used by most of the people all over the world.

Comparative Analysis of Woven Fabrics: Aim and Objectives

The aim of this research is to make a practical investigation into different types of woven fabrics industrially produced in Bangladesh and make a comparison among them based on different characteristics. The main objectives of this thesis based on the above consideration are:

• To analyze the construction and design of some important woven fabrics.
• To determine the weaving, drafting, and lifting plan of some selected fabrics.
• To check the thread density, thread count, GSM, cover factor, and weave design to study the consequences of different fabric parameters on different fabric properties.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

Fabrics

Fabrics can be constructed in a variety of ways, ranging from the matting together of fibrous materials to the intricate interlacing of complex yarn systems.

Various Forms of Fabric

The major classifications of fabrics are:

• Woven fabrics
  Weaving of fabrics consists of interlacing systems of yarn. By varying the interlacing, a wide variety of different fabric constructions can be made.
• Knitted fabrics
  Fabrics can be constructed from one or more continuous yarns by the formation of a series of interconnected loops.
• Non woven
  Masses of fibers can be held together into a fabric by interlocking of fibers by mechanical action or by fusing fibers together with heat, adhesive, or chemicals. Examples of a few fabrics constructed by these means include felt, bark cloth, spun lace, spun bonded, and needle-punched fabrics and bonded webs.

Woven Fabrics

Woven fabrics are made by using two or more sets of yarn interlaced at right angles to each other. Much variety is produced by weaving. Woven fabrics are generally more durable. They can be easily cut into different shapes and are excellent for producing styles in garments. However, the raw edges ravel or fray easily and need to be protected. Fabrics having more fabric count (number of warp and weft yarns present) keep the shape well. Low-count fabrics are less durable and may snag or stretch.

Woven fabrics are manufactured in different widths depending on the end use. The fabrics used for apparels usually contain 90 cm width. The sheeting materials are generally made having a width of 160 cm/140 cm and 150 cm/180 cm.

Table 2.1: Examples of Commonly Found Woven Fabrics

Characteristics of Woven Fabrics

• Oldest and most widely used method of construction
• Made with two or more sets of yarns interlaced at right angles to each other
• Yarns in the lengthwise direction: warp/ends; yarns in the crosswise direction: filling/weft/picks
• Selvedge: self-edge of fabric on both sides along the length of the fabric. Made with more closely placed warp yarns, width: 1/4th inch. The selvedge prevents the fabric from raveling. It is usually made more compact and stronger than the rest of the fabric. Plain, split, fringe, fused, leno, and tucked selvedge
• Grain: indicates warp and weft positions in fabric
• Lengthwise grain
• Crosswise grain
• Bias and true bias
• Identification of grain: selvedge parallel to lengthwise grain, less stretch along warp yarns, warp yarns lie straighter and are stronger, more twist in warp yarns, single yarn is used
• Fabric widths: width 44 to 46 inches or 55 to 60 inches
• Done on a machine called handloom or power loom.

Weave and Its Types

The fabric weave or design is the manner in which the warp and weft are interlaced. The pattern or repeat is the smallest unit of the weave which, when repeated, will produce the design required in the fabric. There are many ways of representing a weave, a most familiar method being to use square design paper.

There are different types of weave for the production of fabrics, such as:

• Plain weave
  • Basket/Matt weave
  • Ribbed (warp and weft)
• Twill weave
• Satin and sateen weave
• Variation of basic weave.
  • Crepe
  • Pile (cut/uncut)
  • Double cloth
  • Gauze (leno)
  • Swivel
  • Lappet
  • Dobby

Plain Weave

Plain weave is the simplest and most common type of construction, inexpensive to produce, durable, flat, and has a tight surface that is conducive to printing and other finishes. The simplest of all patterns is the plain weave. Each weft yarn goes alternately over and under one warp yarn. Each warp yarn goes alternately over and under each weft yarn. Some examples of plain weave fabrics are crepe, taffeta, organdy, and muslin.

The plain weave may also have variations including the following:

• Rib weave: the filling yarns are larger in diameter than the warp yarns. A rib weave produces fabrics in which fewer yarns per square centimeter are visible on the surface.
• Matt weave or basket weave or boxy: here, two or more yarns are used in both the warp and filling direction. These groups of yarns are woven as one, producing a basket effect.

Method of construction: Each filling yarn goes alternately under and over the warp yarns.

Household uses: Draperies, tablecloths, upholstery.

Different types of fabric come under this category:

• Chiffon: A very soft and filling plain woven silk texture consisting of the finest singles which are hard twisted and woven in the gum condition. The cloth is afterward degummed.
• Georgette: A cotton crepe fabric made in imitation of silk georgette, with hard twisted warp and weft yarn. A good cloth is woven plain with right and left twist thread arranged in 2 and 2 order in warp and weft.
• Shantung: Coarse silk fabric with slubs. Mostly Tussah silk, but can be polyester, nylon, and viscose.
• Seersucker: It is created by holding some warp yarns at tight tension, some at slack tension. Those at slack tension puff up to form a sort of “blister-effect,” often slack and tight yarn of different colour.
• Oxford: Oxford weave fabric consists of two thin warp yarns woven to a very soft, thicker yarn in the filling direction. The unbalanced construction of the fabric causes the thin yarns to break and leave tiny holes. The primary use of Oxford weave fabric is in cotton shirting. It is also used in other forms of apparel.
• Ottoman: Originated in Turkey, this is a tightly woven, plain-weave, ribbed fabric with a hard, slightly shiny surface. The ribbed effect is created by weaving a finer silk or manufactured warp yarn with a heavier filler yarn, usually made of cotton, wool, rayon, or waste yarn that is completely covered by the warp yarn, thus creating the ribbed effect. It is characterized by horizontal ribs and is heavier in weight and with a larger rib than both faille and bengaline. It has very pronounced flat ribs in the filling direction. Ribs are made by a cotton, worsted, silk, or rayon filling which does not show on either the face or the back, because the warp covers the filling entirely. It is called Ottoman cord or Ottoman rib when a warp rib is employed. Fabric is stiff and cannot be gathered or shirred.

Twill Weave

Twill weave creates a diagonal, chevron, houndstooth, corkscrew, or other design. The design is enhanced with colored yarn, is strong, and may develop a shine. Twill weave is characterized by diagonal ridges formed by the yarns, which are exposed on the surface. These may vary in angle from a low slope to a very steep slope. Twill weaves are more closely woven, heavier, and stronger than weaves of comparable fiber and yarn size. They can be produced in fancy designs.

Method of construction: Three or more shafts; warp or filling floats over two or more counterpart yarns in progressive steps right or left.

Household uses: Upholstery, comforters, pillows.

Different types of fabric come under this category:

• Denim: A strong warp-face cotton cloth used for overalls, jeans, skirts, etc. Largely made in 3/1 twill weave. Generally, warp yarn is dyed brown or blue and crossed with white weft.
• Gabardine: A warp-face cloth mostly woven 2/2 twill, 27/2 tex warp, 20/2 tex cotton weft. Here cotton weft is yarn dyed, but the wool warp may be dyed in piece.
• Zigzag or wavy twill: These are also known as pointed twills. In these classes of twill weaves, the twill progresses in one direction for half of the repeat and then is reversed for the next half of the repeat. The reversal of the twill may be done in a regular or irregular manner. Ideally, the reversal of the twill should be done considering the series of threads that predominate the face of the fabric. Thus warp way reversal is done in cases where the warp predominates over the weft and weft way reversal is done in cases where the weft predominates over the warp.

Satin

• Smooth, soft luster
• Excellent drapability
• Floats snageasily

Method of construction:

• Floats one warp yarn over four or more weft yarns, then tied down with one thread, resulting in a smooth face.
• Common fabrics: Satin, satin-weave fabrics out of fabrics such as cotton and charmeuse.

Household uses: Draperies, quilts

Different types of fabric come under this category:

• Satin: Used for ribbons, trimmings, dresses, linings, etc., and originally was an all silk fabric with a fine rich glossy surface formed in a warp satin weave. The warp is much finer and more closely set than the weft, and the latter, which only shows on the underside, is frequently composed of cotton. Double-faced satins are made on the reversible warp-backed principle, with one side differently colored from the other.
• Sateen: A cotton fabric made in 5 thread weft-face sateen, and woven like cotton. It is sold in bleached, mercerized, or printed condition.
• Charmeuse: It is a lightweight fabric woven with a satin weave, where the warp threads crossover three or more of the backing (weft) threads. The front side of the fabric has a satin finish—lustrous and reflective—whereas the back has a dull finish.

Operation Sequence of Weaving

Making Woven Fabrics

Woven fabric is normally much longer in the warp direction than it is wide, that is, in the weft direction. Warp yarns are fed from large reels called creels or beams. Typically, these hold about 4500 separate pieces of yarn, each about 500 yards (450 m) long. The filling yarns are fed from bobbins, called quills, carried in shuttles (hollow projectiles) that are moved back and forth across the warp yarns, passing over some and under others. The shuttle is designed so that the yarn it carries can unwind freely as the shuttle moves. Each length of yarn fed from the shuttle as it moves across the loom is called a pick. The yarn folds over itself at the end of each pick and forms another pick as the shuttle returns. When the yarn in a particular shuttle is exhausted, current production looms have automatic devices that exchange the empty quill with a full one.

Loom Motion or Mechanism

The basic mechanisms in any type of loom can be classified as follows:

• Primary motions
• Secondary motions
• Auxiliary motions

Primary Motions

The primary motions can further be divided as shedding, picking, and beat-up motions. The shedding opens the warp sheet into layers to facilitate passage of the shuttle. The picking motion causes the shuttle carrying weft to be propelled from one end of the loom to another. The beat-up motion lays the previously laid weft to the fell of the cloth.

Secondary Motions

The secondary motions comprise take-up and let-off motions. The take-up motion helps to wind the cloth onto the cloth roller and also influences the pick density in the cloth. The let-off motion helps to let the warp from the weaver’s beam at a uniform rate, thus maintaining the warp tension constant throughout the weaving process.

Auxiliary Motions

The auxiliary motions consist of the warp stop motion, weft stop motion, and warp protector motion. The warp stop motion is used to stop the loom in the event of warp breakages. This is necessary to prevent fabric defects such as missing ends and floats. The weft stop motion is used to stop the loom in the event of weft exhaustion or weft breakages. This is necessary to prevent missing weft threads called cracks in the fabric. The warp protector is used to prevent multiple warp thread breakages in the event of shuttle getting trapped in the middle of the warp sheet.

• Raising selected warp yarns, or ends, with suitable harnesses, consisting of frames of heddles, with taut vertical wires and eyelets, or strips with openings in the middle. There is one heddle for each end that is threaded through the eyelet. The heddles guide and separate the warp yarns, raising some of them to make room for the shuttle during the pick. This action is called shedding, and the space between the warp yarns is called the shed. Simple weaves require only two harnesses; complex weave patterns may require as many as 403.
• Picking, laying a length of the filling or weft yarn between warp yarns from the shuttle (a hollow projectile that holds weft yarn inside) as it moves across the shed.
• Battening or beating in, forcing the filling yarn from the pick against the just-formed cloth next to the previous pick. This step is necessary because the shuttle requires some space in its movement across the loom and it is not possible to deposit the pick closely against the previous picks. Battening is done with the reed, which is a grating of parallel vertical wires between the warp yarns.
• Taking up, winding the cloth, as it is formed, onto a take-up reel, the cloth beam.
• As the cloth is taken up, warp yarn is released from the warp beam. This action is called letting off.

The warp yarns may be coated with a temporary sizing for protection against damage during the operation. The process of applying this coating by taking yarn from a large rack, called a creel, passing it through comb guides and through a bath of starch, and winding it on a warp beam, is called beaming or slashing.

Woven Design or Structures

Woven fabrics are made by using two or more sets of yarn interlaced at right angles to each other. Much variety is produced by weaving.

A woven cloth is formed by the interlacement of two sets of threads, namely, warp and weft threads. These threads are interlaced with one another according to the type of weave or design. The warp threads are those that run longitudinally along the length of the fabric and the weft threads are those that run transversely across the fabric. For the sake of convenience, the warp threads are termed as ends and the weft as picks or fillings.

Classification of Woven Structures

Woven structures are classified into the following categories:

• Simple structures
• Compound structures

In case of simple structures, there is only one series of warp and weft threads. These threads interlace with one another perpendicularly. All the neighbouring warp and weft threads are parallel to one another and play an equally important role in determining the properties of the fabric. In case of compound structures, there may be more than one series of threads, of which one set forms the body or ground and the other forms the figuring or ornamentation. Unlike the simple structures, the neighbouring threads need not be parallel to one another.

Methods of Weave Representation

A weave is the interlacing pattern of the warp and weft. Two kinds of interlacing are possible:

• Warp overlap in which warp is above weft
• Weft overlap in which weft is above warp

When the warp is lifted above the inserted weft, a warp overlap is obtained. When the warp thread is lowered, the weft thread is inserted above the warp thread and the weft overlap is obtained.

There are two practical methods of weave representation:

• Linear
• Canvas

In the linear method, each warp thread is represented by a vertical line and each weft thread by a horizontal line. The point of intersection of lines corresponding to a warp overlap is marked by a dot, and the point of intersection corresponding to weft overlap remains unmarked. Though this is a simple method, it is seldom used because the designer has to draw plenty of horizontal and vertical lines, which is time consuming.

In the canvas method, squared paper is employed, on which each vertical space represents a warp thread and each horizontal space represents a weft thread. Each square therefore indicates an intersection of warp and weft thread. To show the warp overlap, a square is filled in or shaded. The blank square indicates that the weft thread is placed over the warp, i.e. weft overlap. Several types of marks may be used to indicate the warp overlap. The “x” mark is most commonly used.

Weave Repeat

The repeat of a weave is a quantitative expression of any given weave. It indicates the minimum number of warp and weft threads for a given weave. It comprises warp and weft repeat. The size of the repeat may be even or uneven depending upon the nature of the weave. In elementary weaves such as plain, twill, satin, etc., the repeat size is normally even. However, in weaves such as honeycomb and huck-a-back, the repeat size may be even or uneven. For any weave, the repeat size is the sum of the warp and weft floats. Thus, in case of a 2/1 twill, the repeat size is 3 × 3. It is common practice to denote one repeat of a weave on design paper.

Basic Elements of a Woven Design

The three basic elements in a woven design are:

• Design
• Draft or drawing plan
• Peg or lifting plan

The design indicates the interlacement of warp and weft threads in the repeat of the design. It is made up of a number of squares, which constitute the repeat size of a design. The vertical direction of the squares indicates the picks and the horizontal direction indicates the ends. A blank in a square indicates that a warp goes below the corresponding weft and an “X” mark in the square indicates that the warp floats above the weft.

The draft or drawing plan indicates the manner of drawing the ends through the heald eyes and it also denotes the number of heald shafts required for a given weave repeat. The choice of the type of drafting plan depends upon the type of fabric woven.

The peg or lifting plan provides useful information to the weaver. It denotes the order of lifting of heald shafts. In a peg plan, the vertical spaces indicate the heald shafts and the horizontal spaces indicate the picks. The peg plan depends upon the drafting plan. In the case of a straight draft, the peg plan will be the same as the design. Hence, no peg plan is necessary in the case of a straight draft.

Some Important Terms of Woven Fabric

Thread Density

Thread density is the number of warp and weft threads per inch of woven fabric.

• Ends per inch (EPI) is the number of warp threads per inch of woven fabric. In general, the higher the ends per inch, the finer the fabric is.
• Picks per inch (PPI) is the number of weft threads per inch of woven fabric. A pick is a single weft thread; hence the term. In general, the higher the picks per inch, the finer the fabric is.

Thread Count

Count is a numerical value, which expresses the coarseness or fineness (diameter) of the yarn and also indicates the relationship between length and weight (the mass per unit length or the length per unit mass) of that yarn. Therefore, the concept of yarn count has been introduced, which specifies a certain ratio of length to weight.

• Warp: Warp counts express the coarseness or fineness (diameter) of the warp yarn on fabric.
• Weft: Weft counts express the coarseness or fineness (diameter) of the weft yarn on fabric.

The fineness of the yarn is usually expressed in terms of its linear density or count. There are a number of systems and units for expressing yarn fineness.

GSM

“GSM” means “grams per square meter,” that is, the weight of fabric in gram per one square meter. By this, we can compare the fabrics in unit area and determine which is heavier and which is lighter.

Cover Factor

Cover factor is a number that indicates the extent to which the area of a fabric is covered by one set of threads. For any woven fabric, there are two cover factors: a warp cover factor and a weft cover factor.

Modern Developments in Weaving

New developments in weaving have taken place in such a direction, which ensures reduced time, energy, and cost involved. Heavy mechanical parts are now being replaced with electronic or microprocessor-controlled alternatives.

In the last two decades, spectacular progress has been made in the field of weaving technology and the most significant being the replacement of conventional looms by shuttleless looms for increasing productivity and quality of the end product. Shuttleless weaving is making an impact on the textile industry. The changeover from fly shuttle to shuttleless involves both new technology and shift from labor-intensive to capital-intensive mode of production. Moreover, for export market, the quality requirements are becoming more and more stringent with the result that the export of the Indian mills is falling. Market demand is also for long lengths of fault-free cloth, which is only possible with shuttleless weaving machines. Increased labor cost without any corresponding increase in productivity is resulting in reduced profit to mill owners. So today, we are in need of shuttleless machines which are weaving from the lightest to the heaviest of fabrics and diversified products using materials like spun, jute, woollen, worsted, metal wire, glass fire, mono and multifilament, etc. with good quality. [Indian Textile Journal]

Specifications of Quality Fabric

• Width and length of the piece should be within acceptable limits.
• Fabric construction such as EPI, PPI, warp count, weft count, and blend percentage should be within limits.
• Fabrics should be free from contamination of color flakes, polypropylene, hair, and jute or within specified limits per 100 linear metres.
• Tensile strength of the fabric should be as specified.
• Major defects such as floats, continuous missing end, wrong drawn-end, double end, and double pick, visible to the eye, should be absent.

To achieve the above specifications of fabric, machine makers started developing their weaving machines. While modernizing, they also touched the cost factor. For reducing manufacturing cost, machine makers have paid attention to energy and spare part consumption.

Chapter 3

Materials and Methods

Sample Materials

Ten specific samples were collected from the R&D department of Sinha Textile Group for completing our thesis. Those samples are listed below:

• Dobby
• Boxy
• Rib Stop
• Oxford
• Plain
• 3/1 Left Hand Twill
• Zigzag Twill
• Bedford Cord
• 2/1 Right Hand Twill
• Ottoman

Instruments

For sample analysis, various instruments were used, such as:

• Counting glass
• Needle
• Beasley’s balance
• GSM cutter
• Electric balance

Counting Glass

Counting glass is used to determine the reed and pick in woven fabric. Reed is actually the number of ends or number of warp threads per inch, and by picks we mean the number of picks or number of weft threads per inch.

Procedure

• Keep the test sample on a flat table and smooth it out.
• Set the pointer of the counting glass at zero.
• Place the counting glass on the fabric in a direction parallel to warp if weft density is to be determined and parallel to weft if warp density is to be determined.
• Find the number of warp or weft threads in a specified length as required.
• Following the procedure prescribed in steps 1 to 4, determine the number of warp and weft threads per centimeter or inch in at least four more places.
• Calculate the number of warp or weft threads per centimeter or inch by the following formula:

• Calculate the mean of all the values and report it as the number of warp or weft threads per centimeter or inch of the fabric.

Needle

A needle is generally a thin, cylindrical object, often with a sharp point on the end.

Beasley’s Balance

Beasley Balance is used in the textile industry for measuring the direct yarn count. The range is manufactured using high-grade aluminum beam which is pivoted at a bracket with the assistance of two jewel bearings. Also, the beam of the balance has a stainless steel hook for putting the yarn and the pointer side has a slit for placing the weight. The beam assembly is fitted in a sheet metal box having a sliding transparent window that prevents the flow of air in the instrument. Further, we offer this instrument with a template for cutting fabric in various sizes. The instrument is chrome plated and painted with metallic dark gray to get a corrosion resistant finish.

Procedure

• A standard weight is suspended in a notch on the beam arm on the pointer side.
• A template is used to cut short lengths of yarn, the length depending upon the count system required.
• These lengths are placed on the hook until the pointer comes against the datum line.
• The number of short lengths required to balance the beam gives the count of the yarn.

GSM Cutter

GSM means grams per square meter of a knit, woven, or nonwoven fabric. It is essential to know the weight of the fabric before manufacturing and after getting the finished fabric. It needs to measure the weight of the fabric to be sure about the finished weight of the fabric. This test can be carried out in different ways, but it is very easy to know the weight of the fabric by cutting the fabric with the GSM cutter.

Procedure

• Take the sample of fabric from bulk and condition it for 4.30 to 06 hours.
• Cut the fabric with the GSM cutter (gram per square cm).
• Weigh the fabric with the electric balance.
• The cut sample is 100 sq. cm. The weight of the cut sample is multiplied by 100.
• The result is the GSM of that particular fabric.

Electric Balance

An electric balance is a weighing device that digitally shows the weight of a substance. It is used for weighing chemicals in labs and is very important for measuring them to the precision of carrying out different experiments.

Procedure

• At first the electric balance was calibrated.
• Then we took the sample and put it on the electric balance.
• At last we saw the reading on the balance and collected it.

Chapter 4

Experimental Results

This comparative analysis of woven fabrics was carried out using ten fabric samples collected from the factory. The specifications of specific samples are given in the following section.

Structure and Design

Sample 1

Construction: 32 × 20
Thread density: 152 × 85

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 152
PPI: 85

Thread count
Warp count: 32
Weft count: 20

Cover factor
Warp: 26.9
Weft: 19
Total: 27.7

Dobby design: This design is dobby because it is a very complicated design. Dobby weave is a patterned fabric like jacquard weave, but the patterns are smaller. Dobby weave produces all-over figured fabrics. The figures are bird’s eye, small diamonds with a dot at the center, or smaller geometric patterns. The construction of the dobby weave is very complex and the design is repeated frequently. Dobby weave is created on dobby machines. The machine selectively raises some warp threads and selectively depresses others with the help of a dobby card.

Sample 2

Construction: (16 + 16) × (16 + 16)
Thread density: 108 × 56

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 108
PPI: 56

Thread count
Warp count: 16 + 16
Weft count: 16 + 16

Cover factor
Warp: 38.2
Weft: 19.8
Total: 31

Boxy design: This design is boxy or matt design because it is a variation of the plain weave. In this, two or more than two warp yarns cross alternately side by side with two or more than two filling yarns. This type of weave resembles a plaited basket. In basket weave, the fabrics have a loose construction and a flat appearance. The weave is more pliable and stronger than a plain weave, but it is not as stable.

Sample 3

Construction: 21 × 21
Thread density: 110 × 72

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 110
PPI: 72

Thread count
Warp count: 21
Weft count: 21

Cover factor
Warp: 24
Weft: 15.7
Total: 26.2

Rib Stop: This design is rib stop design because it has combination of plain and matt.

Sample 4

Construction: (40 + 40) × 30/2
Thread density: 120 × 80

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 120
PPI: 80

Thread count
Warp count: 40 + 40
Weft count: 30/2

Cover factor
Warp: 26.8
Weft: 20.7
Total: 27.7

Oxford design: This design is Oxford design because Oxford weave fabric consists of two thin warp yarns woven to a very soft, thicker yarn in the filling direction. The unbalanced construction of the fabric causes the thin yarns to break and leave tiny holes. Oxford weave is fine, soft, and lightweight. It is mainly used in apparel.

Sample 5

Construction: 40 × 40
Thread density: 133 × 72

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 133
PPI: 72

Thread count
Warp count: 40
Weft count: 40

Cover factor
Warp: 21
Weft: 11.4
Total: 23.9

Plain design: This design is plain design because each weft yarn goes alternately over and under one warp yarn. Each warp yarn goes alternately over and under each weft yarn.

Sample 6

Construction: 16 × 12
Thread density: 116 × 56

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 116
PPI: 56

Thread count
Warp count: 16
Weft count: 12

Cover factor
Warp: 29
Weft: 16.2
Total: 28.4

3/1 Left Hand Twill Design: This design is 3/1 Left Hand Twill design because left hand twill, also known as “S twill,” is a weave in which the grain line runs from the top-left-hand corner of the fabric to the bottom right, which is the opposite of right hand twill.

Sample 7

Construction: 22 × 22
Thread density: 133 × 68

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 133
PPI: 68

Thread count
Warp count: 22
Weft count: 22

Cover factor
Warp: 28.4
Weft: 14.5
Total: 28.2

Zigzag Twill Design: This design is zigzag twill design because the twill progresses in one direction for half of the repeat and then is reversed for the next half of the repeat.

Sample 8

Construction: 20 × 16
Thread density: 154 × 80

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 154
PPI: 80

Thread count
Warp count: 20
Weft count: 16

Cover factor
Warp: 34.4
Weft: 20
Total: 29.8

Bedford Cord Design: This design is Bedford cord design because it has a combination of irregular twill and plain weave.

Sample 9

Construction: 20 × 20 + 70D
Thread density: 120 × 48

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 120
PPI: 48

Thread count
Warp count: 20
Weft count: 20 + 70D

Cover factor
Warp: 26.8
Weft: 12
Total: 27.3

2/1 Right Hand Twill Design: This design is 2/1 Right Hand Twill design because right hand twill, also known as “Z twill,” can be recognized by the upward direction of the diagonal twill on the face of the fabric as it runs from lower left toward upper right.

Sample 10

Construction: 16 × 10
Thread density: 100 × 49

GSM calculation

Thread density
EPI: 100
PPI: 49

Thread count
Warp count: 16
Weft count: 10 + 10

Cover factor
Warp: 25
Weft: 21.9
Total: 27.3

Ottoman Design: This design is Ottoman design because when ribs are made by a cotton, worsted, silk, or rayon filling which does not show on either the face or the back, because the warp covers the filling entirely. It is called Ottoman cord or Ottoman rib when a warp rib is employed.

Comparative Analysis of Woven Fabrics: Thread Density

Thread density is the number of warp and weft threads per inch of woven fabric. Thread density is denoted by EPI and PPI. It is very important for GSM and cover factor. But the GSM and cover factor also depend on the thread count.

From Table 4.1 we have seen that the EPI is always greater than PPI. The highest EPI is 154 of Bedford cord and the lowest EPI is 100 of Ottoman. Also, we see that the highest PPI is 85 of Dobby and the lowest PPI is 48 of 2/1 RHT. Theoretically, EPI must be greater than PPI. EPI is greater than PPI in our result. So all the results we have found in thread density comply with the theoretical concept.

Table 4.1: Thread Density of Different Types of Woven Fabric

Comparative Analysis of Woven Fabrics: Thread Count

Count is a numerical value, which expresses the coarseness or fineness (diameter) of the yarn and also indicates the relationship between length and weight (the mass per unit length or the length per unit mass) of that yarn. Therefore, the concept of yarn count has been introduced, which specifies a certain ratio of length to weight. Thread count is expressed by warp and weft yarn. Thread count is very important for GSM and cover factor. But the GSM and cover factor also depend on the thread density.

From Table 4.2 we have seen that the highest warp count is 40 Ne of Plain and the lowest warp count is 8 Ne (16 + 16) of Boxy. Also, we see that the highest weft count is 40 Ne of Plain and the lowest weft count is 5 Ne (10 + 10) of Ottoman. Ne (English count) is the indirect system. Theoretically, higher Ne must be finer than lower Ne. So all the results we have collected regarding thread count comply with the theory.

Table 4.2: Thread Count of Different Types of Woven Fabric

Comparative Analysis of Woven Fabrics: GSM

GSM means “Gram per square meter,” that is the weight of fabric in gram per one square meter. By this, we can compare the fabrics in unit area and determine which is heavier and which is lighter.

From Table 4.3 we were seen that some variation of GSM by GSM cutter and GSM from construction. Here GSM from construction is always greater than by GSM cutter. In case of by GSM cutter, the highest GSM is 284 of Bedford cord and the lowest GSM is 123 of Plain. Also, in case of GSM from construction, the highest GSM is 321 of Bedford cord and the lowest GSM is 130 of Plain. But GSM from construction and by GSM cutter are almost close to each other.

Table 4.3: GSM of Different Types of Woven Fabric

Comparative Analysis of Woven Fabrics: Cover Factor

Cover factor is a number that indicates the extent to which the area of a fabric is covered by one set of threads. For any woven fabric, there are two cover factors: a warp cover factor and a weft cover factor. It depends on thread density and thread count. The higher the thread density is, the higher the cover factor, but the higher the thread count is, the lower the cover factor.

From Table 4.4 we were seen that the highest warp cover factor is 38.2 of Boxy and the lowest warp cover factor is 21 of Plain. Also, we were seen that the highest weft cover factor is 21.9 of Ottoman and the lowest weft cover factor is 11.4 of Plain. Further, we were seen that the highest total cover factor is 31 of Boxy and the lowest cover factor is 23.9 of Plain. So all the results we have got regarding cover factor comply with the theory.

Table 4.4: Cover Factor of Different Types of Woven Fabric

Weave Design

Woven fabrics are made by using two or more sets of yarn interlaced at right angles to each other. Much variety is produced by weaving.

A woven cloth is formed by the interlacement of two sets of threads, namely, warp and weft threads. These threads are interlaced with one another according to the type of weave or design. The warp threads are those that run longitudinally along the length of the fabric and the weft threads are those that run transversely across the fabric. For the sake of convenience, the warp threads are termed as ends and the weft as picks or fillings.

From Table 4.5, we see the different types of woven design. These designs were very commonly used. We found those designs with the help of counting glass and needle. At first, we saw the warp and weft yarn direction. Then we separated the warp yarn one by one and drew the weave pattern on the Excel sheet and found the weave plan. Then we selected the repeat size of that weave. After that, we drew the drafting plan above the weave plan and the lifting plan was drawn on the left side of the weave plan. So in our result, the thread density is almost correct on the basis of theory.

Table 4.5: Weave Design of Different Types of Woven Fabric

Chapter 4

Conclusion and Recommendation

Conclusion

The results showed that the different types of samples are varied in their weave design, shedding mechanism, and fabric structure, etc. All the processes of analysis of fabrics were conducted in a practical approach, where the basis parameters such as thread density (EPI, PPI), thread count, GSM, and cover factor, etc., were studied.

Fabrics are manufactured in wide varieties and designs. The different design and effect is produced on the fabric with the help of various mechanisms which are helpful to form different weaves and designs which enhance the outlook of apparels.

However, the maximum product can be produced with the proper construction of sample fabric (which is given by buyer) by proper analysis of samples. This comparative analysis of woven fabrics shows that weave structure, yarn count, thread density, and design selection significantly influence fabric performance and appearance.

Recommendation

Based on our findings, following recommendations can be made for the factory:

• In future, try to take the same thread density and same thread count to produce different weave design and then analyze them.
• Old handloom need to be replaced with the modern loom for producing sample properly.
• Analytical sample lab should be set up to check the quality of Counting Glass, Beasley’s balance, GSM Cutter, and Electric Balance before use.
• Fabric handling system should be improved to avoid soiling of fabric.
• The machine stoppage time should be analyzed and minimized. The maintenance should be carried out when the machine is out of action, and routine maintenance should be carried out regularly.

Mazharul Islam Kiron

Founder & Editor of Textile Learner. He is a Textile Consultant, Blogger & Entrepreneur. Mr. Kiron is working as a textile consultant in several local and international companies. He is also a contributor of Wikipedia.

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